Biodiversity and human infectious diseases of zoonotic origin Or the science of trompe-l’œil!

We investigated trends in notifiable infectious diseases in both humans and animals during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea and compared those data against expected trends had nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) not been implemented. We found that human respiratory infectious diseases other than COVID-19 decreased by an average of 54.7% after NPIs were introduced. On the basis of that trend, we estimated that annual medical expenses associated with respiratory infections other than COVID-19 also decreased by 3.8% in 2020 and 18.9% in 2021. However, human gastrointestinal infectious diseases and livestock diseases exhibited similar or even higher incidence rates after NPIs were instituted. Our investigation revealed that the preventive effect of NPIs varied among diseases and that NPIs might have had limited effectiveness in reducing the spread of certain types of infectious diseases. These findings suggest the need for future, novel public health interventions to compensate for such limitations.

The pig: a model for human infectious diseases

According to some definitions health is the absence of disease, thus it can be said that disease is the lack of health. However, it is difficult to agree with such a simplified approach, as health is not just a synonym for health status. The term health status has a much wider implication and it implies not only the state of health i.e. if the animals are healthy or not, but also is the herd is free from infectious diseases, and the implementation of biotechnological measures for the maintenance of productivity. It is possible that the animals have a poor health status (presence of latent infections) but are clinically healthy and productive. Similarly, it is possible that the animals are in a good health status, but the management, housing, care and diet are not adequate, resulting in the manifestation of clinical signs of disease. A disease is essentially the absence of health, i.e. a deviation from the harmonious functioning of some organs or organisms, which can then be clearly manifested through certain symptoms or signs, which is also called the clinical form of the disease. However, very often some diseases are present in a subclinical or latent form, when they can only be detected by one of the methods of serodiagnosis, but the best and safest way is by identifying the cause or by considering some parameters that indicate a decline in production. Health is a prerequisite for the profitability of keeping and raising animals. A healthy animal produces a healthy product that, after processing, becomes food for humans. In this way, human health is also protected. Animal proteins are an indispensable nutrient in the diet of the population. Unfortunately, animal health does not depend only on measures implemented in an area, country, or even a continent, but on a wider, global space and mode of transmission, most often of the causative agents of infectious diseases, which cause enormous damage to the economies of countries relaying on animal husbandry. Under the patronage of world organizations, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), of which almost all countries are members, universal rules and guidelines are being prepared and adopted for monitoring, detection, prevention of spreading, and control and eradication animal diseases. Each country adopts health care programs according to its potentials and accepts the obligation to report to world organizations, primarily to OIE, in the event of certain diseases of terrestrial and aquatic animals. Veterinary services have the greatest responsibility for animal health and food of animal origin, they have the role of public service in the protection of public health. Some countries have declared veterinary activity a common good, and the initiative is to define this service on a global scale. It is known that there are 1415 pathogens that cause infectious diseases in humans. Over 60% of human infectious diseases are of a zoonotic nature. At least 75% of emerging infectious diseases in humans are of animal origin. Every year, five new infectious diseases in humans appear, and most of them are of animal origin. Out of the pathogens with potential use for bioterrorist purposes, 80% of them are zoonotic pathogens. Disease prevention (preventive health care) will be a priority for veterinary and health systems and services in the future. In addition to the immunological measures that are being implemented (vaccination), epidemiological services have a wide range of options at their disposal that will become more important. Veterinary medicine works very effectively on the protection of farm breeding of various species of animals by prescribing the consistent application of health, zoohygiene and biosafety measures and procedures. In that way, the contact of the causative agent of the disease with the animal is prevented, which has proven to be the key factor in preventing the occurrence of mass diseases (epidemics, pandemics and other forms of infectious diseases).

The objective of this study was to determine the susceptibility of Arcobacter butzleri isolates to various antimicrobial agents used in the treatment of infectious diseases in humans and animals. Thirty-nine A. butzleri strains isolated from broiler chickens were tested for their susceptibility to 23 antimicrobial agents using a disc diffusion method. All isolates were resistant to aztreonam, cefuroxime sodium, cephalothin, orbenin, oxacillin, penicillin G and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazol. Of the 39 isolates tested, 26 were also found resistant to amoxycillin, amoxycillin/clavulanic acid and ampicillin. One isolate was resistant to, and four showed intermediate level of resistance to, erythromycin. All isolates were susceptible to amikacin, chloramphenicol, danofloxacin, enrofloxacin, nitrofurantoin, nalidixic acid, tetracyclines and tobramycin. The majority of the isolates were found resistant to antibiotics commonly used for the treatment of infectious bacterial diseases in humans and animals. This study shows that A. butzleri strains vary in their resistance to certain kinds of antibiotics and caution should be taken when choosing a suitable antibiotic for the treatment of disease(s) caused by this organism.

Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM-1) is a receptor protein mainly expressed on the surface of neutrophils and macrophages,and belongs to the member of immunoglobulin superfamily. When infectious diseases occur in the body, TREM-1 combines with its ligand and transmembrane protein DAP12 through the short-tail region, activates downstream signal transduction pathways to lead to the increase of proinflammatory mediators such as interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor-α,and plays an important role in the amplification process of inflammatory response. In human infectious diseases,lung infection is more common. In the acute lung infection, macrophages are activated, TREM-1 sheds from the surface. It can provide the new value for the diagnosis and treatment of lung infection diseases by detecting sTREM-1 (TREM-1 in soluble form) in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. This article reviews the relationship between TREM-1 and lung diseases. Key words: Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1; Lung diseases

To help setting boundaries to infectious disease aspects of One Health science, there is a need to define clearly meanings for terms commonly used to describe aspects of the science. The One Health High-Level Expert Panel, convened by the International Health Agencies, has now defined One Health https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1010537 providing a basis for examining ontology of key terms frequently used in the subject area, in the past and in the future. For example, when describing pathogens of concern to humans, originating from animals, narratives in use are extremely loose and unspecific. This can lead to confusion on the role of animals in human infections (from genetic origins through to contemporary infection sources), and this can lead to inappropriate response or interventions, as well as mislead research priorities. From an ethical and welfare standpoint, misunderstanding of the role or significance of animal origins can also cause unnecessary persecution or destruction of animals, justified by perceived benefits of these actions to human health security. In this context, there has been a trend to emphasise the role of wildlife species as a source of human pathogens based seemingly on myth, speculation or assumption. The key terms for consideration for the question are as follows: emerging infection disease (of humans), zoonotic origin pathogens, zoonosis and zooanthroponosis. These terms have been more commonly in use since the last decades of the 20th Century, coincident with an apparent rise in novel human infectious viral diseases, such as HIV AIDs, Ebola Virus, human and zoonotic influenzas (H1N1, H5N1) and the coronaviruses. Language is fundamental in providing a logical framework for understanding and knowledge. For the new Science of One Health, this is the first step to ensuring clear research directions. We invite authors to explore the historic use of these terms and their ontologies and examine if they provide sufficient specificity to enable clear understanding and interpretation of disease origins and/or are adequate to communicate and scientifically describe the epidemiological role of animals in human disease occurrence. Examining how the evolution of language in science and communication might influence prioritisation for research on as well as prevention and response to infectious diseases will be a core element in answering this question.

Current epidemiological situation in morbidity and mortality in the world is characterized in the article, main social and economic indicators supporting spread of infectious agents are presented, principles, concepts and main provisions of WHO Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) and three stages of EPI are presented. Topical issues of specific protection (vaccination) are highlighted, missed opportunities and ways to overcome them are shown. Attention is drawn to three main sources of evolutionary formation of human infectious diseases and various points of view concerning causes and mechanisms of evolutionary transformation by changing mechanism of transmission of microorganisms to the main host - microorganism are discussed. SUMMARY According to the World Health Organization (WHO), every year about 2 billion people fall ill with infectious diseases in the world. At the same time, infectious diseases account for almost 25% of all deaths, and in developing countries this figure reaches up to 45%. Thus, infectious diseases remain one of leading causes of death in the world. According to the WHO, out of about 50% of million people, 16-17 million die from infection and only 10 million from cardiovascular diseases. Out of 10 main causes of death on earth, 7 are somehow associated with infectious diseases.

12 - Psychosocial Influences on Immunity and Infectious Disease in Humans

Many Gram-negative bacteria require the type III secretion system (T3SS) to cause infectious diseases in humans. A looming public health problem is that all bacterial pathogens that require the T3SS to cause infectious diseases in humans have developed multidrug resistance to current antibiotics. The T3SS is an attractive target for the development of new antibiotics because of its critical role in virulence. An initial step in developing anti-T3SS-based therapeutics is the identification of small molecules that can bind to T3SS proteins. Currently, the only small molecules that are known to bind to the Salmonella T3SS proteins SipD and SipB are bile salts (to SipD) and sphingolipids and cholesterol (to SipB). Herein we report the results of a surface plasmon resonance screen of 288 compounds wherein the binding of 4-morpholinoaniline to SipD, 3-indoleacetic acid to SipB, and 5-hydroxyindole to both SipD and SipB were identified. We also identified by NMR the SipD surfaces involved in binding. These three compounds represent a new class of molecules that can bind to T3SS tip (SipD) and translocon (SipB) proteins that could find use in future drug design.

Proteomic is a branch of science that deals with various numbers of proteins where proteins are essential human constituents. Proteomic has a lot of functions inside the human and animal living organisms. This review helps to make a thought on the importance of proteomic application in human health and disease with special reference to preventive and cure studies. The human health can be divided into physical and mental health. The physical health relates to keeping human body state in a good health and to nutritional type and environmental factors. The mental health correlates to human psychological state. The main factors that affect the status of human health are human diet, exercise and sleep. The healthy diet is very important and needs to maintain the human health. The training program exercise improves human fitness and overall health and wellness. The sleep is a vital factor to sustain the human health. The human disease indicates abnormal human condition which influences the specific human part or the whole human body. There are external and internal factors which induce human disease. The external factors include pathogens while internal factors include allergies and autoimmunity. There are 4 principle types of human diseases: (1) infectious disease, (2) deficiency disease, (3) genetic disease and (4) physiological disease. There are many and various external microbes' factors that induce human infectious disease and these agents include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The lack of necessary and vital dietary rudiments such as vitamins and minerals is the main cause of human deficiency disease. The genetic disease is initiated by hereditary disturbances that occur in the human genetic map. The physiological disease occurs when the normal human function body is affected due to human organs become malfunction. In conclusion, proteomic plays a vital and significant role in human health and disease.

In recent years, the world has seen the emergence of several new human infectious diseases. Given the rapid and global communication through social media and other electronic means, diseases are now often given common names by stakeholders outside as well as inside the scientific community. The use of names such as “swine influenza” and “Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome” has had unintentional negative economic and social impacts by stigmatizing certain industries or communities. Disease names, once given, are difficult to change later even if an inappropriate name is being used. Therefore, it is important that an appropriate name is assigned to a newly identified human disease by whoever first reports it. In response to such concerns, the World Health Organization (WHO), in close collaboration with the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and in consultation with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) ([ 1 ][1]), has developed a set of standard best practices for naming new human infectious diseases, with the aim of minimizing unnecessary negative effects on nations, economies, people, and animals. A full description of these best practices is available on the WHO Web site ([ 2 ][2]). These best practices apply to new infections, syndromes, and diseases of humans that have never been recognized or reported before in humans, that have potential public health impact, and for which no disease name is yet established in common usage. They do not replace the existing ICD system, but rather provide an interim solution prior to the assignment of a final ICD disease name. As these best practices only apply to disease names for common usage, they also do not affect the work of existing international authoritative bodies responsible for scientific taxonomy and nomenclature of microorganisms. WHO, OIE, and FAO strongly encourage all national, regional, and international stakeholders, including scientists, national authorities, and media, to follow these best practices in the event of the emergence of a new human disease, so that inappropriate disease names do not become established. The views expressed in this Letter are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the signatory organizations. 1. [↵][3] World Health Organization, International Classification of Diseases ([www.who.int/classifications/icd/en][4]). 2. [↵][5] [www.who.int/topics/infectious_diseases/naming-new-diseases/en][6]. [1]: #ref-1 [2]: #ref-2 [3]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text [4]: http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en [5]: #xref-ref-2-1 View reference 2 in text [6]: http://www.who.int/topics/infectious_diseases/naming-new-diseases/en

Parasitology and One Health

The contemporary social and environmental influences on infectious diseases can be better understood by exploring the long historical procession of disease risks, as human culture has evolved from early hunter-gatherer days. The main features of today's world that contribute to the increased probability of emergence and spread of infectious diseases in humans are shown in a table. Social-cultural factors are of great importance in influencing the contemporary changes in patterns of new and spreading infectious disease. Further, social circumstances are also a basic determinant of susceptibility to infection. The emergence of a zoonotic disease in humans requires a novel type or amount of contact between humans and the existing animal reservoir for the infectious agent. It is necessary to understand the particular circumstances that favor the “emergence” of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and prions in response to these social and environmental changes. It is also forcibly reminded of the unpredictability and irrepressibility of infectious disease mobility and mutability by the devastating ongoing pandemic of HIV/AIDS since it emerged in the 1980s. Many infectious diseases are sensitive to climatic conditions, particularly insect-borne infections and infections that are spread person-to-person via contaminated food and water. Natural climatic variations and events can influence infectious disease emergence. Each of these infectious diseases is maintained, at least in part, in wild birds. Several recent scientific reports suggest that recent climate change has already begun to influence some infectious diseases.

Bacterial contamination of preserved and non-preserved metal working fluids

The Risk of Development of Antimicrobial Resistance with the Use of Coccidiostats in Poultry Diets