Bielański Forest in Warsaw as the object of the oldest floristic and mycological research in Mazovia (Central Poland)

The turbulent past has marked the entire area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially its peripheral parts, which were often influenced by violent demographic changes, reflecting on various population structures. The wider area of Podrinje was affected by forced migrations of the Bosniak population during the 19th and 20th centuries. The expulsion of Bosniaks from the Principality of Serbia in the early 1830s significantly impacted the demographic structures of the Bosnian Podrinje region, especially the Osat region. This study does not explore various anthropogeographic changes in the settlement of Pribidol, whether they occurred during normal or forced social events, but rather investigates the process of family formation and households during the 19th century. The most important historical sources used for the mentioned research are: the Ottoman census of male household members of the Srebrenica District in 1850/51, the Ottoman cadaster of 1867/75, the list of residential property owners from 1880/84, as well as the land registry books of the Srebrenica District in 1894. This study explored the families that lived in the settlement of Pribidol during the 19th century. These are the following families: Ahmetović, Aljić, Begić, Dervišević, Džananović, Halilović, Husić, Ibišević, Ibrahimović, Janković, Marković, Mešanović, Mitrović, Muminović, Mustafić, Osmanović, Salkić, and Smajić. In the Muslim area of Pribidol, 19 households, or family households, were recorded, with a total of 79 male individuals, with an average age of 20.1 years. In the then-independent settlement of Pribidol, 15 households were recorded, with 59 male individuals, with an average age of 19.0 years. In the Barakovići mahalla, 3 households were recorded, with 14 male individuals, and in the independent settlement of Zgunja, one household was recorded with a total of 6 male individuals. Therefore, the total population of Bosniak Pribidol was around 160 individuals of both sexes. During the conducted census in 1850/51, only two families had a family surname, which changed in the early 1880s. According to the 1879 census in the settlement of Gaj (Turkish Pribidol), there were 171 inhabitants (93 male individuals) all of Bosniak nationality. There were 25 houses and an equal number of apartments in the settlement, with an average of 6.8 individuals per household. The 1895 census recorded 315 inhabitants (158 male individuals). There were 255 Bosniaks and 60 Orthodox inhabitants. There were a total of 50 houses (2 uninhabited) with 50 households - an average size of 6.3 members. Between 1850/51 and 1895, there was a significant increase in the population of the settlement of Pribidol, especially in the last census of 1895. This growth was conditioned by the settlement of Orthodox inhabitants, who constituted 25% of the total population in 1895. The list of residential property owners from 1880/84 identified three new mahallas (Kadrići, Podševar, and Živkovići) compared to the census of 1850/51. These Bosniak families of the settlement of Pribidol persisted throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, either through male or female lines, except for changes in the family surname among married female inhabitants. Some family surnames ceased to exist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, either due to the extinction of their male members or their emigration from the settlement of Pribidol. This particularly applies to families with the surnames Ahmetović, Halilović, and Mešanović. The number of households (families) increased among other Bosniak families until the mid-20th century, and some of their members moved to other settlements in the Podrinje region, primarily around the cities of Bijeljina, Bratunac, and Srebrenica.

Music and choreography interaction in the stage dances of musical theater productions of the 17th – the first half of the 18th century

Today Vasyuchyn is a small village with about one thousand inhabitants. The settlement had urban status and was one of the famous craft centers in the past. There was a quarry here, where high-quality natural alabaster stone was mined and processed. Vasyuchyn alabaster had a snow-white color and was famous as a beautiful material for decorating walls, carving sculptures, tombstones and decorative architectural details. Actually, Vasyuchyn alabaster was called in the 17th century "Ruthenian marble" and products made from it were exported abroad. A small alabaster industry operated here at the beginning of the 20th century. The ancient history of the manufactory is unknown to current residents. In this regard, the publication aims to reveal the history of the settlement and perform a hypothetical reconstruction of its architectural and planning structure at the time of the 17th century. A special task is to determine the location of the former Vasyuchyn alabaster manufactory, whose activities were associated with famous sculptors and entrepreneurs of the late 16th and early 17th centuries - Herman van Hutte and Heinrich Horst. The quarry and workshop for the production of alabaster stone sculptures have probably been operating in Vasyuchyn for a long time, but the Dutch masters are responsible for raising it to a new artistic level. Vasyuchyn is one of the lost towns of Galicia. In the 14th-17th centuries, it was a private town with a very rich history. Although the history of Vasyuchyn was quite short from 1444 to 1620, its urban structure was developed and did not differ from neighboring settlements with a city rights - Knyahynychi, Khodoriv, Zhuriv, etc. In the western part of the settlement there was a midtown with a small square market square and a church. A feature of Vasyuchyn was that a mill was located next to the market square. The midtown of Vasyuchyn was surrounded by water obstacles on all sides. The water wheel created natural favorable conditions for defense. The system of defensive ramparts covered the midtown from the western and southern sides. Assessing the remains of the ramparts, which have survived only in the western part of the settlement, we attribute them to the bastion system of fortifications of the Old Dutch school. The mid was probably fortified at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, when an alabaster factory operated here. The urban structure of the city belonged to the so-called conjugated type of cities, when the castle and the midtown formed a combined defense system. Vasyuchyn Castle had two phases of development. The older defensive yard was located on an artificial island in the middle of a swampy Swirzh river valley.The remains of earthen ramparts have survived from this object. The new castle was located in the southern part of the midtown. Unfortunately, no buildings or fortifications have survived from it. A palace complex with a manor house was planned on the site of this object at a later time. Its planning structure reflected in the draft plan of the settlement from 1846. In order to reconstruct the architectural and spatial structure of the castle, which probably had a Renaissance character, it is necessary to conduct deeper historical and cartographic studies. The town of Vasyuchyn in the 16th-17th centuries should be attributed to the conditional artistic capitals of the Renaissance in Galicia. The products of the alabaster workshop exported to the many cities of Eastern and Central Europe. Artistic works made of Vasyuchyn alabaster noted in Kraków, Warsaw, Poznan, Wroclaw, Czarnów, Rymanów, etc. Many works made for local shrines - in the cities of Lviv, Sambir, Felshtyn, Uniw, etc. The revival of the alabaster industry, especially in the direction of using alabaster stone in an artistic aspect, can be the foundation of a new economic progress of the community.

In recent decades historians, sociologists and political scientists have attempted to explain why in the late 19th and early 20th centuries some Western countries adopted national corporatist structures while others transformed into liberal market economies. One of the explanatory factors often mentioned is the persistence or absence of guild traditions. Yet how exactly guild traditions influenced the shaping of national political economies largely remains unclear due to a lack of empirical evidence on their 19th-century development. This paper aims to contribute to the debate by investigating the development of various trades in Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands throughout the 19th century. We distinguish six scenarios of what might have happened to crafts during the transition to an industrial economy. Next we focus on the prevalence of these six scenarios in the three countries and their influence on the emerging national political economies. We conclude that the claims put forward in the literature about the importance of guild traditions are only partially correct. By focusing on trades, rather than on the national or local political economy, our analysis demonstrates that in our three sample countries a wide variety of trades – some in which guild traditions survived, others in which these traditions had never existed or were destroyed in the 19th century – existed side-by-side. Decisive in the formation of national political economies and citizenship rights weren’t general national patterns, but which of these trades came to dominate the development of national political economies by the end of the 19th century.

The compositional features were considered and the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were classified. in Kyiv. Their symbolism, structure and structural construction, stylistics and characteristic architectural and decorative features were studied. The purpose of the study: to investigate and analyze the compositional, stylistic and semantic features of the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in Kyiv, to develop the principles of classification of portals and conduct their classification. Methodology. The research was conducted on the basis of the following methods: empirical, theoretical and empirical-theoretical. The empirical method includes observation, photo-fixation, graphic sketches and constructions, comparisons and generalizations. Theoretical techniques include: going from the abstract to the concrete, abstraction, concretization, identification and separation. Most of the work was carried out using empirical and theoretical methods. The results. Photographs, graphic sketches and classification of building portals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were carried out. in Kyiv based on the developed compositional-constructive and stylistic principles of classification. It was found that the portals are located mainly on the main compositional axes of the facades of historical buildings, namely on the main vertical divisions, which are highlighted by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers and often changed scale and shape of windows. The role of the portals in the overall composition of the building and the problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to the replacement or destruction of individual parts and elements of the portals have been revealed. In particular, as a result of unsuccessful repairs and renovations in some buildings of the historical center, the entrance doors were replaced with faceless, rough, unscaled ones, which distorted not only individual facades, but also entire sections of the urban environment. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the compositional and semantic features of the portals of the facades of Kyiv buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure, constructive and stylistic components of the portals. A scientific novelty is the developed classification of the portals of the historical buildings of Kyiv. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv portals of the specified period, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of buildings of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in Kyiv. The developed classification of portals will be a useful educational reference material for students - future architects and designers who are interested in the peculiarities of Kyiv's historical buildings.

I Science Around 1800: Cognitive and Social Change.- Some Patterns of Change in the Baconian Sciences of the Early 19th Century Germany.- From Celestial Mechanics to Social Physics: Discontinuity in the Development of the Sciences in the Early Nineteenth Century.- 1802 - "Biologie" et Medecine.- Ontologic Foundation of Scientific Knowledge in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Rationalism.- Hermann von Helmholtz: A Physiological Approach to the Theory of Knowledge.- On "Science as a Language".- The Historical Conditions and Features of the Development of Natural Science in Russia in the First Half of the 19th Century.- The Prussian Professoriate and the Research Imperative, 1790 - 1840.- European Natural Science. (The Beginning of the 19th Century).- Science, Knowledge, and the Reproduction of the Social Capacity For Labour.- II Science and Education.- Teaching Method and Justification of Knowledge: C. Ritter - J.H. Pestalozzi.- Possibilities and Limits of the Prussian School Reform at the Beginning of the 19th Century.- Qualitative and Quantitative Aspects of Curricula in Prussian Grammar Schools During the Late 18th and Early 19th Centuries and Their Relation to the Development of the Sciences.- Some Aspects of the Development of Mathematics at the University of Halle-Wittenberg in the Early 19th Century.- Justus Grassmann's School Programs as Mathematical Antecedents of Hermann Grassmann's 1844 'Ausdehnungslehre'.- On Education as a Mediating Element Between Development and Application: The Plans For the Berlin Polytechnical Institute (1817 - 1850).- III Mathematics in the Early 19th Century.- Mathematics and the Moral Sciences: The Rise and Fall of the Probability of Judgments, 1785 - 1840.- Changing Attitudes Toward Mathematical Rigor: Lagrange and Analysis in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.- The Origins of Pure Mathematics.- Mathematical Physics in France, 1800 - 1835.- Mathematics in Germany and France in the Early 19th Century: Transmission and Transformation.- Mathematicians in Germany Circa 1800.- Name Index.- List of Participants.

Although at least thirty-five women were buried in the earlier necropolis at Vron during the period between ca. 370 / 75 and ca. 435 / 45, only three of them were equipped with typically Germanic brooches or other elements of dress. Such a low proportion of women whose dress was secured according to the Germanic custom by means of brooches, is not unusual in the burial sites of Northern Gaul, and indeed clearly distinguishes these from the burial grounds on the right bank of the Rhine in free Germania, where practically all the women used one or more brooches to fasten their clothing, and were subsequently buried with them. The evidence from Vron, as from other comparable military burial sites to the west of the Rhine (e.g. Oudenburg, Vermand, Vireux-Molhain), attesting how few women were buried with brooch jewellery , may indicate either that in actual fact very few Germanic women had accompanied their men-folk into Northern Gaul, or that the majority of women of barbaric origin had, in the process of cultural assimilation, abandoned their exotic costume at a very early date and now favoured Gallo-Roman dress. Among the typically Germanic dress ornaments observed at Vron, one may distinguish five different brooch types and one hairpin type, analysed below: 1. Simple cross-bow brooches belong to the most frequently attested and geographically widespread group of Germanic women's brooches in the 4 th and 5 th centuries (mid-4 th to mid-5 th centuries) between the Elbe and the Loire (fig. 2). They are almost invariably made of bronze, as are the two examples from Grave 163A and Pit 9. The brooch from Grave 163A, worn as a single item, is remarkable for its greater length, its short spring, and upper chord. These rather unusual features appear most frequently in the simple cross-bow brooches from the Lower Rhine and Westphalia. There, this unusual form may be dated chiefly to the first half of the 5 th century. This corresponds to the chronology proposed by Cl. Seillier, who attributes, on other evidence, Grave 163A to his Phase 3 (= ca.415/20-435/45). 2. Cross-bow brooches with a trapezoid foot-plate represent a further typological development of the simple cross-bow brooch. The silver brooch from Grave 242A possesses in addition a beaded wire decoration on the bow, together with a stamped metal plaque covering the trapezoid foot-plate, features which enable it to be classed with the Vert-la-Gravelle variant (fig. 3). This form of brooch, known almost exclusively by the archaeological evidence from the left bank of the Rhine is probably to be interpreted as the product of workshops in Northern Gaul, which are known to have manufactured other types of Germanic costume ornaments for the wives of foederati (see below). Comparison with the very similar brooches from Grave 7 at Vert-la-Gravelle (Mame) enable this example from Vron to be dated at the earliest to the last third of the 4 th century or to the turn of the century. The location of the inhumation within the burial ground suggests a date within Seillier's Phase 2 (= ca. 390-415/20). 3. The bronze hairpin from the same grave, over 17 cm long, with a small round head, belongs to the Fecamp type (fig. 4), known chiefly from the Germanic female burials and other archaeological evidence found in Westphalia and the Lower Rhine.

The University of Tartu Museum’s laboratory porcelain collection mostly includes items that were purchased for the University of Tartu laboratories for research (substance analysis etc.) and teaching purposes (for performing practical tasks such as making medicines). The porcelain collections in Estonian museums (the Mikkel Museum, Art Museum of Estonia and Estonian History Museum) mainly consist of tableware, ornaments and memorabilia. Several museums (e.g., in Saare and Jarva Counties) have apothecary ware. The University of Tartu Museum’s laboratory porcelain collection reflects the evolution of ceramics in the general historical development of chemistry and pharmaceutical laboratories. The oldest items were likely ordered by two professors active in the 19th century: Carl Schmidt (1822–1894, Professor of Chemistry 1852–1892) and Georg Dragendorf 1836–1898, Professor of Pharmacy). Both professors had the opportunity to renew their laboratory equipment in the middle of the 19th century, which they did. The most valued part of the collection is the vast selection of older porcelain items from the Institute of Pharmacy, created in 1844. The collection of laboratory porcelain has accumulated over the years and it currently consists of more than 1,000 items. The oldest pieces ordered for the University of Tartu laboratories date from the mid-19th century, starting from 1844–1847 (Koningliche Porzellan Manufaktur Berlin). The porcelain items that were ordered for the University in the 19th century and the early 20th century come from other sources, too, mainly from German companies such as Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen, Sanitats-Porzellan Manufactur W. Haldenwanger and Spandau. The grog and stoneware purchased for the chemistry laboratory at the same time also came from other parts of Europe (the United Kingdom and France). The porcelain labware purchased after World War II starting from the 1950s and 1960s mainly came from the porcelain factories of Leningrad and Riga and Klin in Moscow Oblast. The product list and its changes are reflected in catalogues issued by porcelain companies, which were also used for determining the names and details of the porcelain items discussed in this overview. The collection only has a few items produced by Europe’s oldest porcelain manufacturer Meissen. Most of the items from the older period bear the marking of the Royal Porcelain Factory in Berlin, which was one of the main porcelain manufacturers in Germany apart from Meissen. The list of items from W. Haldenwanger’s porcelain factory is also varied. Apart from a few exceptions, the laboratory porcelain from the second half of the 20th century mainly comes from the porcelain factories of St. Petersburg, Riga and Klin in Moscow Oblast: the collection includes a few items from the Porcelain Factory in Leningrad and a varied selection from Riga and Klin. The products of these three factories differ from German laboratory porcelain from the late 19th and early 20th century both for the quality of the porcelain and finishing of the glazing. The later labware is visually more robust and has simpler finishing, visually resembling hard earthenware, the ingredient quantities and clay type of which can slightly differ from hard-paste porcelain. The older objects include more specific items made for special purposes while the majority of the later ones are of general nature. Many porcelain items fell into disuse due to advancements in university studies and laboratories. Pharmacist training used to include detailed courses on preparing medicines, because many products (e.g., tinctures, ointments and suppositories) that are now produced by large drug companies used to be made in pharmacies. Additionally, new special fireproof and durable materials have been introduced in the field of labware, the use of which results in different and better quality indicators than those of traditional porcelain.

The aim of this article is to provide a holistic presentation of the genesis, intensity, and directions of movement, as well as the spatial and temporal distribution of the German national group which settled in Central Poland from the end of the 18th century to the 1820–1830 period. This paper analyses the determinants of the inflow of German immigrants, and their geographical origin, as well as the social and occupational structure. The settlers from German lands were a very diverse social group. In the case of first and second-generation immigrants who came to Central Poland, the social integration process was still quite slow. The colonists and settlers living in the diaspora developed a certain pattern of existence that focused on their immediate environment separating them from the outside world, while the retention of their mother tongue and religious tradition was more an expression of traditionalist consciousness than national identity.

Can the 16th and early 17th centuries in Poland‐Lithuania and some other east‐central European countries be characterized as a “Golden Age” in human capital? We trace the development of a specific human capital indicator during this period: numeracy. We draw upon new evidence for Poland and Russia from the early 17th century onwards; and for Belarus, Ukraine, and Lithuania from the 18th century onwards; controlling for potential selectivity issues. Poland had quite high levels of numeracy during the early 17th century, but these levels subsequently fell below those of even southern Europe. As in other countries in the area, numeracy levels in Poland were lower than those of western Europe during the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries. This finding might support the hypothesis that the second serfdom process, which gained momentum during the 17th century, was one of the core reasons why human capital accumulation was delayed in eastern Europe. The major wars in the region also had devastating effects on numeracy levels. (KEYWORDS: Central‐Eastern Europe; historical Demography; Eastern Europe; Human Capital; Numeracy; Age‐Heaping; census microdata)

During the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Arkhangelsk North, sea fishing and hunting were exercised by artels (collective associations). It can be explained by the region’s severe climate and difficult conditions for fishing and hunting, which make working by oneself impossible. This paper is relevant due to the almost complete lack of studies on the internal organization and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Moreover, studies on these associations are necessary for further research into the Russian experience of sea bioresource exploitation in the Arctic during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper aimed to examine the structure and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen throughout the aforementioned period. The materials included legal acts that regulated the work of artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries, published sources about fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen, as well as documents kept in the State Archives of the Arkhangelsk Region. To perform the analysis, the author utilized the historical-systematic and historicalgenetic methods. The article dwells on the rules and customs that existed in Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen artels during the period under study, revealing how the structure of these associations had been changing. In conclusion, the author identified the applicable area of law for these artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well as the principles that contributed to their preservation.

The aim of the article is a general review of the process of forming political education as a set of political ideas, knowledge in politics, and the system of training officials in Ukrainian universities in the 19th – early 20th centuries. Methods: The historical-genetic method was used, which was in reproducing the long-term process of formation of political education of the period. The historical-comparative approach made it possible to identify the similarities and differences of the essential characteristics of the object, to summarize the historical facts and to carry out further typology. In the end, the historical-systemic method ensured consideration of political education in Ukrainian universities in the context of the formation of political science in Western world. Main results. Researchers link the origins of political education in the territories of sub-Russian Ukraine with the opening of Kharkiv University (1805) and the department of moral and political sciences, where advanced political and legal knowledge and ideas were disseminated. The next stage, which also includes Kyiv University (1834), begins with the Statute of 1835. It defines the guidelines for law faculties, in which officials were trained, which in the 19th century meant state or political education. The Statute of 1863 marked a new stage in the development of education. In the reform era of the 60s (19th century) Novorossiysk University was opened in 1865. At the same time, the period was marked by the increased attack of tsarism on Ukrainian culture and education. State science (or political) science did not have a formal structural division in domestic universities. However, researchers emphasize the special role of professors in the development of political science. Scientific foreign trips during the last third of the 19th and early 20th centuries opened chances for scientists to acquire knowledge of political life in Europe and reproduce it in teaching. Type of article: review. The article offering a holistic glance of the formation of political education in the universities of Ukraine in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It argues that political education was formed in the bosom of subdivisions related to jurisprudence, political economy, and philosophy. The lack of a separate shelter for this field of knowledge was explained by the non-separation of the science of politics from the general system of humanities and legal sciences in the Western world.

Botanical Dissertations from the 19th and Early 20th Centuries at the Ohio State University Herbarium (OS)

Migration was a key tool for building the social, cultural, and economic infrastructures of the “British Dominions” throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Between 1840 and 1940, an estimated 15 million people left the British Isles for overseas destinations. Such displacement of people contributed both to what scholars term the “imperial diaspora” and the “labor diaspora” driven by economic necessity between 1840 and 1914. Print culture (and its practitioners) was crucial to these diasporas. And members of a highly skilled, mobile “printing diaspora” who could help construct and promote political and cultural identities through the agency of print were, from the outset, high on the preferred occupation list. Scottish printers were key players in such printing diaspora networks, both locally and internationally: individuals circulated between regional and overseas sites, acting as transmitters of print values and trade skills and becoming central to the expansion of labor interests in new territories. Such international circulation of highly skilled workers played its part in the development of 19th-century Anglophone print economies. Over the course of the long 19th century, either through their own initiative or supported by emigration and removal grant schemes, Scottish printers circulated across the English-speaking colonial world, setting up businesses, engaging in labor and union politics, and creating the print culture infrastructures that sustained social, communal, and national communication and identity. Sample data drawn from UK typographical union records offer some insight into the extraordinarily high levels of local, regional, and international mobility of skilled Scottish print trade workers during the 19th century. Such peregrinations were common. Indeed, the tramping tradition among skilled artisanal workers was one that dated back several centuries. Part of the so-called tramping system, which organized trade guilds and print trade unions in Britain used throughout the 19th century, it was a means of organizing and controlling labor activity in local and regional areas. The typographical unions in Ireland and Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) that developed from the midcentury onward encouraged such mobility among union members as a means of monitoring and controlling supply and demand for labor. Tramping typographers also acted as union missionaries, starting up unions in unserved towns along these regional networks and playing key roles as informants, cultural transmitters, and social networkers. Tramping, though, was only a part of the picture of worker mobility in the 19th-century Scottish printing trade diaspora. Printers participated in a communication and trade network that encompassed and supported skills transfer and personal mobility between printing centers locally, regionally, and internationally. They also were responsible for supporting cultural identities that linked overseas communities back to Scotland. Through them, trade, labor, and cultural practices and values were exported overseas and integrated into indigenous settings. Such migration also facilitated insertion of trade skills into local and general spaces and the transfer of knowledge and skills between incomer and indigenous workers. The various forms in which such identities were effectively supported and monitored shaped regional, national, and transnational flows of Scottish skills and labor traditions throughout the English-speaking world in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The article surveys the evidence on changing living standards across Southeast Asia, a region that in 2020 included a diverse range of countries from Myanmar to the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos. The region has been described as open and pluralistic, a crossroads of goods, people, and ideas that has never been shut off from the outside world. The years from the mid-15th to the mid-17th centuries have been described by one historian as an age of commerce, where trade and commerce flourished and people from a number of countries in Asia and Europe mingled in port cities. But gradually over the 18th and 19th centuries European powers began to assert their control over much of the region, and by the end of the 19th century the British controlled Burma and Malaya, the French Indochina and the Dutch the huge Indonesian archipelago. In the early 20th century the Americans displaced the Spanish in the Philippines. Population growth in Southeast Asia appears to have been slow between 1600 and 1800, but accelerated over the 19th and 20th centuries compared with other parts of Asia. In the early 19th century population was estimated to be around 10 to 12 percent of that in China, and in 2020 it was almost 48 percent. Evidence of living standards in the early 19th century is examined, as well as how the policies of various colonial powers active in the region in the 19th and early 20th centuries both facilitated population growth and tackled the consequences . Colonial policies tried to increase both food-crop production for domestic consumption and also encouraged export-oriented agriculture, responding to growing global demand for tropical products. These policies often came into conflict as populations increased. By the early 20th century several colonial powers were worried about evidence that living standards were not improving and in some regions were declining. They adopted policies designed to address the problem. After the defeat of Japan, between 1946 and 1965, ten independent countries emerged across Southeast Asia. Governments in all these countries had ambitious plans for improving living standards for their populations, but the extent to which they succeeded in the last half of the 20th century varied considerably. The article examines the evidence, and suggests reasons why some countries have been more successful in improving living standards compared with others.