Bidder and Target Size Effects in M&A Are Not Driven by Overconfidence or Agency Problems

Target size and test distance effects on stereoacuity were investigated in 24 subjects using a three-dimensional monitor. Examination 1: Target Size Effects. The test distance was 2.5 m for 0.1°, 0.2°, 0.5°, and 0.9° target sizes; crossed parallax was presented in 22-second units. Average stereoacuity values for 0.1°, 0.2°, 0.5°, and 0.9° target sizes were 59.58 ± 14.86, 47.66 ± 13.71, 41.25 ± 15.95, and 39.41 ± 15.52 seconds, respectively. Stereoacuity was significantly worse with a 0.1° target than with 0.2°, 0.5°, and 0.9° target sizes (P = 0.03, P < 0.0001, and P < 0.0001, resp.). Examination 2: Test Distance Effects. Test distances of 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 m were investigated for a 0.5° target size; crossed parallax was presented in 22-second units. Average stereoacuity values at 2.5 m, 5.0 m, and 7.5 m test distances were 44.91 ± 16.16, 34.83 ± 10.84, and 24.75 ± 7.27 seconds, respectively. Stereoacuity at a 7.5 m distance was significantly better than at distances of 2.5 m and 5.0 m (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.02, resp.). Stereoacuity at a 5.0 m distance was significantly better than at 2.5 m (P = 0.04). Stereoacuity should be estimated by both parallax and other elements, including test distance and target size.

The spatial memory for the last position occupied by a moving target is usually displaced forward in the direction of motion. Interpreted as a mental analogue of physical momentum, this phenomenon was coined representational momentum (RM). As momentum is given by the product of an object's velocity and mass, both these factors came to be under scrutiny in RM studies, the goal being to provide support for the internalization hypothesis. Although velocity was found to determine RM's magnitude, possible effects of mass were more elusive. Recently, an effect of target size on RM was reported, adding to previous findings that bigger targets were more mislocalized downward in the direction of gravity (via perceived heaviness and representational gravity; RG). The aim in the present research was to test that those outcomes reflect an internalization of momentum by excluding oculomotor factors. The results showed that an effect of target size, when it emerged, could be accounted for by a foveal bias such that bigger targets were more displaced toward gaze than were smaller ones. Specific contingencies between eye movements and target size seem to account for previous reports regarding the alleged effects of perceived mass on both RM and RG. This phenomenon seems furthermore to be modulated by the presence of other visual elements (fixation point) and the range of target velocities. These outcomes are taken as a rebuttal to the claim that cognitive analogues of mass or heaviness are responsible for previously reported effects of target size on both RM and RG.

The model-based Wi-Fi sensing approach has shown advantages on facilitating the development of more robust sensing systems, due to its capability of revealing the physical and mathematical sensing mechanisms without the requirement of a large set of training data. Existing models usually treat the sensing target as a particle and characterize the propagation of Wi-Fi signals accordingly, i.e., the effect of target size is ignored. However, in most real-world scenarios, the sensing targets are non-particle and different targets usually have different sizes. Considering that the size difference may have a significant impact on the sensing performance, it is necessary to develop a size-aware model to enrich the Wi-Fi sensing theory. To fill this gap, we propose a non-particle target oriented Wi-Fi sensing model, aiming to describe the relationship between the Wi-Fi signal and the target size. Specifically, by extending the classical particle target oriented Wi-Fi Fresnel zone model, we characterize and quantify the reflected signals from different parts of the non-particle target in a more fine-grained manner. We find the amplitude of the reflected Wi-Fi signals increases and decreases periodically along with the changing of the target size, which is called as the oscillation phenomenon. To validate the proposed model, we implement two sensing applications with a pair of transceivers, including a respiration detection system and a target size measurement system. Extensive experiments demonstrate the correctness and the usefulness of the proposed size-aware model. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first theoretical model that reveals the effect of target size on Wi-Fi sensing.

The transgenic CHO cell line PL61, carrying a recombinant SV40-gpt gene, was treated with restriction endonucleases to assess mutagenesis from defined DNA double-strand breaks. Mutations in gpt were measured under two conditions: a stringent condition where selection ensured that the closely-linked neo gene was retained functionally intact, or a relaxed condition without the requirement for neo gene function. Despite testing 18 different restriction endonucleases with various numbers of potential break-sites within the transgene, mutations were only found under relaxed selection conditions. These mutations commonly led to complete loss of the transgene, suggesting that large deletions predominate when selection is relaxed. It is argued, in comparison to mutation data for other genomic sites in CHO cells, that variations in the 'effective target size' for mutagenesis may explain the response of the transgene under different conditions.

The range of clear and single binocular vision differs between 3D displays and clinical prism vergences, but this difference is unexplained. This difference prevents clinicians from predicting the range of clear and single binocular vision in 3D-viewing patients. In this study, we tested a hypothesis for this difference. The purpose of this study was to determine whether changing fixation target size in 3D viewing significantly affects the vergence ranges and, if so, then to determine whether the target size effect is driven by fusional vergence gain changes, threshold of blur changes, or both. Twenty-one visually normal adults aged 18 to 28 years viewed 3D images at 40 cm in an electronic stereoscopic. The fixation target, a Maltese cross, moved in depth at 2∆/s by way of changing crossed or uncrossed disparity until blur and diplopia ensued. We used four target sizes: (1) small (width × height, 0.21° × 0.63°), (2) medium (1.43° × 4.3°), (3) large (3.6° × 10.8°), and (4) 3D (size changing congruently with disparity). The effect of target size on responses was tested by mixed ANOVAs. Mean convergence blurs and breaks increased with target size by 40% (P < .001) and 71% (P < .001), respectively, and in divergence by 33% (P = .03) and 30% (P = .04), respectively. The increases in break magnitude with target size implicate fusional vergence gain change in the size effect. Increasing target size raised the threshold of blur from 1.06 to 1.82 D in convergence and from 0.97 to 1.48 D in divergence (P = .008). Growing fixation target size in 3D viewing increases fusional vergence gain and blur thresholds, which together increase the limits of clear and single binocular vision. Therefore, the clarity of a 3D image depends not only on its disparity but also on the size of the viewed image.

This study investigated the effects of the target size and movement distance on user performance and workload in a virtual reality (VR) environment. In a repeated-measures laboratory study, 36 participants (18 male and 18 female) performed the drag-and-drop task as a standard human–computer interaction (HCI) task with different target sizes (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3 cm) and movement distances (5, 9, 13, 17, and 20 cm). Task completion time (TCT), error rate, and movement time (MT) were measured as performance indices, whereas physical load and effort were assessed as workload indices. The results demonstrated that the target size and movement distance significantly affected all performance measures and workload indices. Large target sizes produced better performance and lower workloads; however, large movement distances decreased performance and increased workload. However, sex had no significant effect on the performance or workload during the drag-and-drop tasks. The best target sizes were 2.5 and 3 cm, and the worst size was 1 cm. The best movement distances were 5 and 9 cm, and the worst distance was 20 cm. The results of this study can provide useful reference information for developing VR technology based on human factors and demonstrate that additional basic research is required to reflect the distinctive features of VR in the future.

Introduction: This study explores the feasibility of SRS/SRT treatment with MLC leaves wider than 2.5 mm at isocenter by inter-comparing treatment plans produced with 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mm leaves for various target sizes and shapes.Materials and methods: Forty previously treated patients were re-planned using 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mm wide MLC leaves. For each patient, all three plans were evaluated and contrasted between them in terms of five metrics: target dose homogeneity, conformity index, organs at risk dose, dose fall off outside the target, and dose to normal tissues. A regularity index RI was introduced that quantified the degree of target shape irregularity. The effect of target size and shape irregularity on feasibility of 5.0 and 10.0 mm leaves was analyzed.Results: Consistent plan degradation was observed for 10.0 mm (sometimes for 5.0 mm) compared to 2.5 mm MLC in terms of the above five plan metrics, but this degradation was small to clinically insignificant. As an exception, when target (PTV) size was smaller than about 1 cm diameter, clinically significant differences were found between 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mm MLC.Conclusion: 5.0 and 10.0 mm MLC can be used in SRS/SRT for targets (PTV) diameter larger than 1 cm. For smaller targets, 2.5 mm MLC is clinically superior, 5.0 is acceptable and 10.0 mm MLC is discouraged in terms of PTV dose conformity.

The effects of target size and error rate on the cognitive demand and stress during augmented reality interactions

We theoretically investigate the problem of diffusive target search and mean first passage times (MFPTs) of a tracer in a three-dimensional (3D) polymer network with a particular focus on the effects of combined one-dimensional (1D) diffusion along the polymer chains and 3D diffusion within the network. For this, we employ computer simulations as well as limiting theories of a single diffusive tracer searching for a spherical target fixed at a cross-link of a homogeneous 3D cubic lattice network. The free parameters are the target size, the ratio of the 1D and 3D friction constants, and the transition probabilities between bound and unbound states. For a very strongly bound tracer on the chains, the expected predominant set of 1D lattice diffusion (LD) is found. The MFPT in the LD process significantly depends on the target size, yielding two distinct scaling behaviors for target sizes smaller and larger than the network mesh size, respectively. In the limit of a pointlike target, the LD search becomes a random walk process on the lattice, which recovers the analytical solution for the MFPT previously reported by S. Condamin, O. Bénichou, and M. Moreau [Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 260601 (2005)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.95.260601]. For the very weakly bound tracer, the expected 3D free diffusion (FD) dominates, extrapolating to the well-known Smoluchowski limit. A critical target size is found above which the MFPT in the FD process is faster than in the LD process. For intermediate binding, i.e., a combination of LD and FD processes, the target search time can be minimized for an optimal range of target sizes and partitions between FD and LD, for which the MFPTs are substantially faster when compared to the limiting FD or LD processes. Our study may provide a theoretical basis to better understand and predict search and reaction processes in complex structured materials, thereby contributing to practical applications such as designing nanoreactors where catalytic targets are immobilized in polymer networks.

This study investigated performance and touching experience as a function of duration of visual feedback and target size on a touch screen. Five duration of visual feedback by three target size within-subject experiment was conducted. Relationship between performance and duration of visual feedback has an inverted-U shape trend. Performance and touching experience evaluation was worse with small targets. There was significant interaction between target size and duration of visual feedback. At the small target size condition performance was different from the other sizes. People could pay more attention to visual feedback because small size target condition was difficult. Another possible explanation is that the presented visual feedback size was very similar to small target condition. Longer lasting visual feedback might over complicate things for people and lead to confusion with the target.

The constant bearing angle (CBA) strategy is a prospective strategy that permits the interception of moving objects. The purpose of the present study is to test this strategy. Participants were asked to walk through a virtual environment and to change, if necessary, their walking speed so as to intercept approaching targets. The targets followed either a rectilinear or a curvilinear trajectory and target size was manipulated both within trials (target size was gradually changed during the trial in order to bias expansion) and between trials (targets of different sizes were used). The curvature manipulation had a large effect on the kinematics of walking, which is in agreement with the CBA strategy. The target size manipulations also affected the kinematics of walking. Although these effects of target size are not predicted by the CBA strategy, quantitative comparisons of observed kinematics and the kinematics predicted by the CBA strategy showed good fits. Furthermore, predictions based on the CBA strategy were deemed superior to predictions based on a required velocity (V (REQ)) model. The role of target size and expansion in the prospective control of walking is discussed.

The minimum margins required to compensate for random geometric uncertainties in the delivery of radiotherapy treatment were determined for a spherical Clinical Target Volume, using an analytic model for the cumulative dose. Margins were calculated such that the minimum dose in the target would be no less than 95% of the prescribed dose for 90% of the patients. The dose distribution model incorporated two Gaussians, and could accurately represent realistic dose profiles for various target sizes in lung and water. It was found that variations in target size and tissue density lead to significant changes in the minimum margin required for random errors. The random error margin increased with tissue density, and decreased with target size. The required margins were similar for dose distributions of spherical and cylindrical symmetry. Significant dose outside the spherical high dose region, as could result from multiple incident beams, lead to an increased margin for the larger targets. We could confirm that the previously proposed margin of 0.7 times the standard deviation of the random errors is safe for standard deviations up to 5 mm, except for very small targets in dense material.

A new approach to linear discriminant analysis (LDA), called orthogonal rotational LDA (ORLDA) is presented. Using ORLDA and properly accounting for target size allowed development of a new clutter metric that is based on the Laplacian pyramid (LP) decomposition of clutter images. The new metric achieves correlation exceeding 98% with expert human labeling of clutter levels in a set of 244 infrared images. Our clutter metric is based on the set of weights for the LP levels that best classify images into clutter levels as manually classified by an expert human observer. LDA is applied as a preprocessing step to classification. LDA suffers from a few limitations in this application. Therefore, we propose a new approach to LDA, called ORLDA, using orthonormal geometric rotations. Each rotation brings the LP feature space closer to the LDA solution while retaining orthogonality in the feature space. To understand the effects of target size on clutter, we applied ORLDA at different target sizes. The outputs are easily related because they are functions of orthogonal rotation angles. Finally, we used Bayesian decision theory to learn class boundaries for clutter levels at different target sizes.

Effects of target size on displacements between the actual and remembered vanishing points of moving and stationary targets were examined. For horizontally or vertically moving targets, target size influenced displacement only along the axis aligned with the direction of implied gravitational attraction; larger targets exhibited greater downward displacement when targets moved horizontally, greater forward displacement when targets descended, and smaller forward displacement when targets ascended. For stationary targets, target size did not influence displacement along the axis aligned with the direction of implied gravitational attraction. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that mental representation incorporates an analogue of weight. It is proposed that weight, rather than mass, influences displacement because the representational system incorporates subjective or experiential aspects of physical principles rather than physical principles per se. An observer who perceives a target that is moving in a consistent direction will usually remember that target as having traveled slightly further than it actually did; in other words, memory for the final orientation or location of a target will be slightly displaced in the direction of anticipated target motion (for a review, see Hubbard, 1995b).

The effect of target size and background contour on the perceived velocity of a visually tracked target was determined using a psychophysical comparison procedure. For targets viewed against a uniform field, an increase in target size produced a modest underestimation of target velocity. For small test targets, a background of contours moving in the same direction as target motion also produced an underestimation of target velocity. A background of contours moving in the direction opposite to that of target motion produced a small, but consistent, overestimation of target velocity. As target size increased, the underestimation effect seen with striped backgrounds moving in the same direction was not enhanced. The overestimation effect seen with a striped background moving in the opposite direction was nulled by an increase in target size.