Bibliometric analysis of research on theory of mind in children

Previous findings on the association between theory of mind (ToM) and aggression in children are mixed. The social skills deficit view regarded ToM as a single-edged sword and proposed that a lack of ToM can lead to aggression, while the double-edged sword view proposed that children with advanced ToM can still show much aggression because children can also leverage ToM to harm others. To resolve the dispute between the two views, we conducted a meta-analysis combining cross-sectional and longitudinal findings from 53 studies including a total of 11,579 children aged between 2 and 15years. The overall negative correlation between ToM and aggression was small but significant (r=-0.08). The negative correlation was robust, with the magnitude of the correlation being similar across physical versus relational aggression, proactive versus reactive aggression, cognitive versus affective ToM, preschoolers versus school-aged children, different aggression measurements, and different levels of societal individualism. Moreover, the negative correlation was found regardless of whether ToM and aggression were measured concurrently or at different time points, but the correlation was the largest when ToM was measured before aggression. Whether the aggression was bullying or not also moderated the association, with ToM only being negatively related to non-bullying aggression but not bullying. Together, these findings suggest that ToM is a single-edged sword to decrease general aggression and that aggression might also give rise to lower ToM capacity during development. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: This study systemically reviewed the existing mixed findings on the association between aggression and ToM during childhood using a meta-analysis. There was a negative correlation between ToM and aggression in children aged between 2 and 15 years. The negative correlation between aggression and ToM was stronger when ToM was measured first, followed by aggression, than vice versa. There was a negative correlation between non-bullying aggression and ToM, whereas there was no correlation between bullying and ToM.

The aims of the present study were to investigate relations between moral reasoning, executive functioning and Theory of Mind in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) compared to typically developing children and to apply the dual aspect theory of to moral reasoning in individuals with and without ASD. Overall, 21 children with ASD (age: M = 10·22, SD = 1·55) and 21 controls (age: M = 9·83, SD = 2·36) participated and completed the Moral Reasoning Test for children from , which tests affective and cognitive aspects of moral reasoning. In addition, participants completed two Theory of Mind tasks, a working memory and an inhibition test. Correlational analyses revealed significant relations between cognitive moral reasoning and inhibitory control as well as between Theory of Mind and inhibition for the ASD group. Thus, inhibitory control, but not working memory and Theory of Mind, might be one key mechanism underlying moral reasoning, and possibly ToM development in children with ASD. Analyses of variance revealed no significant differences in cognitive and affective aspects of moral reasoning between individuals with ASD and typically developing children. Both groups did also not differ in Theory of Mind and executive functioning. Findings are discussed in light of the heterogeneous literature.

Objective: The present study examines the effectiveness of two psychomotor rehabilitation methods, Dosahu and Floortime, on the theory of mind in students with high-functioning autism. Methodology: This study is an applied research in terms of its objective and a quasi-experimental interventional study in terms of data collection, employing a single-group pretest-posttest design with a control group and follow-up. The statistical population consisted of all 6- to 10-year-old boys with high-functioning autism in Tehran who were enrolled in exceptional schools in the city during the 2023-2024 academic year. The sampling method used in this study was multi-stage cluster random sampling. Participants were selected from autistic children diagnosed by the Organization for Special Education and identified as having high-functioning autism based on the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). A total of 45 children were randomly assigned to three groups of 15 participants each. The first group underwent Dosahu intervention, the second group received Floortime intervention, and the third group served as the control group, receiving no intervention. Data analysis was conducted using paired t-tests and visual depiction or graphical analysis via SPSS. Findings: The Dosahu therapeutic method significantly affected the subscales of theory of mind in children with autism spectrum disorder. Furthermore, the effect size indicates that the Dosahu method was more effective in improving preliminary theory of mind in children with autism spectrum disorder and contributed more to its enhancement (p<0.01). Conclusion: The results of this study showed that Dosahu and Floortime psychomotor rehabilitation positively impact the improvement of theory of mind and motor imagery in children with high-functioning autism, enhancing their cognitive and motor skills.

THEORY OF MIND 1. How conversational input shapes theory of mind development in infancy and early childhood 2. Social relationships and children's understanding of mind: Attachment, internal states and mind-mindedness 3. How access to language affects theory of mind in deaf children 4. Theory of mind in children with cerebral palsy: The impact of limited expressive linguistic abilities ACQUISITION OF PRAGMATICS 5. Children's responses to yes-no questions 6. Getting information from others: Who do children turn to? 7. The scope and origins of children's assumptions of conventionality 8. Access to language, social cognition and lexical development in autism MULTIPLE ACCESS TO LANGUAGE 9. Counting words and a principles-after account of the development of number concepts 10. Access to childhood language memory: Implications for cognitive development 11. Early bilingualism and theory of mind: Bilinguals' advantage in dealing with conflicting mental representations 12. Exploring the effects of bilingualism on children's conversational understanding and moral sense

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) struggle with impaired theory of mind. We aimed to evaluate the effect of remediation of theory of mind on theory of mind, face perception, and behavioral symptoms in children with ASD. Thirty children with ASD were randomly assigned to two equal groups of theory of mind training and active control group. Attentive remediation of theory of mind (ARTOM) and story-telling sessions were used for intervention in the groups. Theory of mind and facial emotion recognition tests as well as Gilliam autism rating scale (GARS) were used for assessment in three baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up sessions. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used for analysis. The results showed improvement in facial emotion recognition and theory of mind in intervention group. The behavioral symptoms, measured by GARS, were ameliorated in the intervention group. The training effects lasted until follow-up session. The results suggest remediation of basic components of theory of mind, without direct intervention on theory of mind, improves theory of mind skill. The results also suggest that the remediation of basic components of theory of mind improves social and communicational performance and ameliorates stereotypes symptoms in children with ASD.

Introduction: Divorce is not only an event but also a process that has short-term and long-term effects on children. Aim: The present study was conducted to compare executive functions, sensory processing and theory of mind in children from divorced families and ordinary children. Method: This is causal-comparative research. The statistical population included 180 male and female students between 9 and 12 years old in Districts 5 and 18 of Tehran in the academic year 2021-2022 selected by convenience sampling method and divided in two groups of children from divorced families and ordinary children (n=90 in each group). For data collection, Executive Function System (D-KEFS) (Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001), Sensory Profile (Dunn, 1999) and Theory of Mind (Hutchins et al., 2012) were used. The research data was analyzed by independent t-test and SPSS 24. Results: The results showed a significant difference in working memory (t=6.08, P<0.05), mental flexibility (t=5.12, P<0.05), inhibitory control (t=7.16, P<0.05), sensory register (t=6.72, P<0.05), sensation-seeking (t=4.65, P<0.05) and sensory sensitivity (t=7.36, P<0.05), and theory of mind levels including level 1 (t=7.12, P<0.05), level 2 (t=7.14, P<0.05), and level 3 (t=9.32, P<0.05). The mean of ordinary children was higher than that of children from divorced families, but no significant difference was observed in the mean of sensory avoiding in both groups (P˃0.05). Conclusion: The status of executive functions, sensory processing and theory of mind in normal children was better than that of children from divorced families. Therefore, the use of educational programs to strengthen cognitive dimensions of the mind of children from divorced families with emphasis on executive functions, sensory processing and theory of mind can be effective on improving their cognitive performance.

ABSTRACTThe phenomenon of imaginary companions (ICs) has received little attention in developmental psychology, even though it can be observed in approximately 25% of preschool-aged children. Only a few studies have investigated the effect of ICs on children's theory of mind and emotion understanding, and the results are partial or inconsistent. This study used comprehensive measures to assess emotional understanding and theory of mind in children aged four to six with ICs (N = 24) and compared their performance to that of children without ICs (N = 24). Results showed that children with ICs, regardless of age and gender, have a better theory of mind and emotion understanding than children without ICs. The greatest impact of ICs was on girls' emotion understanding. The results are discussed in relation to gender differences.

Executive functioning and theory of mind in children clinically referred for attention and behavior problems

The link between impaired theory of mind and executive function in children with cerebral palsy

This study aimed to investigate the development of Theory of Mind (ToM) in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Down syndrome, and typical development from Iran and Sweden. Participants between the ages of 6 to 12 were assessed using various ToM tasks. Additionally, the study explored the correlation between children's behavioral problems, as reported by teachers and parents, and their ToM performance. Furthermore, the influence of family socioeconomic status on children's ToM understanding was examined. The research revealed that cultural factors played a partial role in specific ToM tasks during childhood, but not across the entire ToM construct in the studied groups. Introduction: Theory of Mind (ToM) refers to the ability to understand and attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions, to oneself and others. It plays a crucial role in social interactions and is an essential aspect of cognitive development in children. This study aimed to explore the influence of cultural factors on ToM development in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Down syndrome, and typical development. Methodology: The participants consisted of 74 native speakers from Iran and 66 from Sweden, falling within the 6 to 12 age range. They were divided into three groups based on their developmental profiles: children with ASD, children with Down syndrome, and typically developing children. ToM tasks were administered to measure their ToM abilities across all orders of complexity. Results: The study found that cultural factors partially influenced specific ToM tasks that children developed during their childhood. However, this effect was not observed across the entire ToM construct for any of the studied groups. The findings suggest that cultural differences might impact certain aspects of ToM development, but they do not have a universal effect on ToM understanding in the studied populations. The results also revealed a strong correlation between children's behavioral problems, as reported by teachers, and their ToM performance. However, this correlation was not significant when considering parents' perspectives. This discrepancy highlights the importance of considering multiple informants when assessing children's behavior and social cognition. Furthermore, the study examined the relationship between family socioeconomic status and children's ToM understanding. Surprisingly, no clear link was found in any of the studied groups, suggesting that socioeconomic status may not be a determining factor in ToM development among these children. Conclusion: In conclusion, this cross-cultural analysis provides valuable insights into the development of ToM in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Down syndrome, and typical development from Iran and Sweden. Cultural factors were found to have a partial influence on specific ToM tasks developed during childhood, while family socioeconomic status did not appear to be significantly linked to ToM understanding in these groups. The study also underscores the importance of considering different perspectives when evaluating children's behavior and social cognition. Further research is warranted to explore other potential factors that may impact ToM development in diverse populations.

A new theoretical scheme named ToAM (Theory of Artificial Mind) was examined by means of qualitative and quantitative methodology among twenty four 5-7 year old children from centr al Israel. The study also examined the effects of interacting with behaving artifacts (constructing versus observing the robot's behavior) using the RoboGan interface on children's development of ToAM and ToM and looked for conceptions that evolve among children while interacting with behaving artifacts which are indicative of the acquisition of ToAM. The quantitative analysis indicated that the interaction with behaving artifacts, for both age and condition groups brought into awareness children's ToM as well as influenced their ability to understand that robots can behave independently and based on external and environmental conditions. The qualitative analysis indicated that the engagement in building the robot's behavior influenced the constructors' ability to explain several of the robots' behaviors, their understanding of the robot's script-based behavior and rule-based behavior and the children's metacognitive development. The theoretical and practical importance of the study is discussed.

Introduction: Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have serious social skill deficits and problems in relation with peers. this study aimed to compare theory of mind (ToM) in drug naïve children with ADHD with those with no psychiatric disorders at the same age. Methods: This cross-sectional study was established in child and adolescent psychiatry clinic of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences. Drug naïve, male children and adolescents with a diagnosis of ADHD were enrolled as well as age and IQ matched healthy controls. Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version, Child symptom inventory-4 and Conner’s Parents Rating Scales-Revised were used to measure psychiatric disorders and Sally-Anne false belief task andThe Reading the Mind in the Eyes task (Child) for components of ToM. Results: A total of 30 children completed the study in each group. Half of children with ADHD could not give the expected answer in Sally-Anne false belief task which was significantly lower than controls. They also showed a significantly lower performance in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. severity of ADHD was not correlated with score of Reading the Mind in the Eyes task. Conclusion: children with ADHD have deficits in ToM compared to age and IQ matched controls in terms of social cognition and social sensitivity.

The impact of visual-spatial abilities on theory of mind in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

Objective: Oppositional defiant disorder is an outward disorder and one of the most common disruptive behavior disorders that is considered the third most common psychiatric disorder whose primary symptoms are behavioral, cognitive, and emotional problems. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation based on facial emotional recognition on behavioral inhibition and theory of mind in children with oppositional defiant disorder. Methods and Materials: The present study was quasi-experimental research with a pretest-posttest design. The study population consisted of all male students in the second and third grades of elementary schools in the 7th and 6th districts of Tehran in the academic year (2020-21) who have symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder. The available sampling method was purposeful, so 20 students who met the inclusion criteria were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups of 10 people. The research instruments included the Go/No-Go response inhibition test, the Eyberg Child Behavior Questionnaire, and Stirenman's 38-item theory of mind. A cognitive rehabilitation program based on facial emotional state recognition was performed for the experimental group for 22 sessions. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed with SPSS-26 to analyze the data. Findings: Findings showed that cognitive rehabilitation based on facial emotional recognition improved theory of mind (p<0.01) and behavioral inhibition (p<0.01) in children with oppositional defiant disorder. Conclusion: It can be concluded that cognitive rehabilitation based on face-emotional recognition was effective in behavior inhibition and theory of mind in children with oppositional defiant disorder.

Background: Some studies have demonstrated the high impact of headache and migraine in several areas of children and adolescents' life. In recent years, there has been an increase in scientific interest in the relationship between migraine and emotional regulation, investigating the possible consequences of emotional dysregulation on physical and mental health. While some studies have been carried out on the relationship between alexithymia and headache or migraine (especially in adults), no data exist on relationship between Theory of Mind (TOM), metacognition, and alexithymia in children and adolescents with migraine.Methods: Children with diagnosis of migraine without aura (MWoA) (36 males and 34 females) were compared to a healthy control group (31 males and 39 females). The age range was from 8 to 13 years in both groups. All children completed the Alexithymia Questionnaire for Children (AQC) for the assessment of alexithymia levels and the Domain of Social Perception included in the NEPSY-II to evaluate levels of TOM. Metacognitive development was evaluated with Io e La Mia Mente for children aged between 8 and 10 years and with Metacognitions Questionnaire for Children (MCQ-C) for children from 11 to 13.Results: There were no differences between children with MWoA and the control group in metacognitive abilities; only in the subscale “Negative Meta Worrying” of MCQ-C girls scored higher than boys, regardless of the group they were part of. Also, in the NEPSY-II subscale there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups. Children with MWoA scored higher in the AQC subscales “Difficulty Identifying Feelings” and “Difficulty Describing Feelings” than controls. Moreover, children between 8 and 10 years statistically differed from older children in “Difficulty Identifying Feelings” and in Total Score.Conclusion: Our data suggest that children with MWoA have no metacognitive and TOM problems compared to a healthy group. The experimental group showed higher traits of alexithymia, confirming what suggested by other studies in the literature. Future research will have to focus on migraine with aura and tension-type headache to evaluate any differences with children with MWoA.