Beyond absolute education: relative educational attainment and perceived discrimination among immigrants

This article examines the educational selectivity of immigrants in France—i.e. how their level of education contrasts with that of non-migrants in their country of birth-and the influence of this selectivity on the educational attainment of their children. I combine the Barro-Lee data set (2010) with the French TeO survey (2008-2009) to construct a measure of 'relative educational attainment', i.e. an immigrant's position in the distribution of educational attainment among the population of the same cohort and gender in the immigrant's country of birth. I demonstrate that the level of immigrants' relative educational attainment differs both between and within countries of origin. I then show the positive influence of immigrant parents' relative educational attainment on their children's educational attainment, over and above family socioeconomic status in France. The intergenerational transmission of cultural resources and subjective social status are the proposed sociological mechanisms that can account for the intergenerational effect of immigrant educational selectivity. In the study of assimilation, both the theoretical and empirical literature have tended to overlook immigrant parents' pre-migration characteristics in the explanation of their children's educational and occupational out- comes. Yet, immigrants are also emigrants (Sayad, 2004; Waldinger et al., 2012). There are therefore strong reasons to consider immigrants' characteristics in and relative to their country of origin as relevant factors in shaping their experiences and that of their descendants in the country of destination. In this article, I examine the educational selectivity of immigrants in France—i.e. how their level of education contrasts with that of comparable non-migrants in their country of birth—and the influence of this selectivity on their children's educational attainment. By combining the 2010 version of the Barro-Lee data set on educational attainment distributions around the world and the French 2008-2009 'Trajectories and Origins' survey on immigrant families (INED, 2008- 2009), I created an individual-level measure of immi- grants' relative level of educational attainment in their country of origin. This unique measure allows me to show how immigrant educational selectivity varies between, and within, countries of origin. I then assess the impact of immigrants' relative educational attain- ment on their children's educational attainment in France.

Earlier studies using a double perspective (destination & origin) indicate that several macro-characteristics of both destination and origin countries affect the educational performance of migrant children. This paper explores the extent to which educational system features of destination and origin countries can explain these differences in educational achievement of migrant children, next to these macro-characteristics. Using data from the 2006 PISA survey, we performed cross-classified multilevel analysis on the science performance of 9.279 15-year-old migrant children, originating from 35 different countries, living in 16 Western countries of destination. We take into account a number of educational system characteristics of the countries of destination and origin, in order to measure the importance of differentiation, standardization, and the availability of resources. We show that differences in educational achievement between migrants cannot be fully attributed to individual characteristics or macro-characteristics. Educational system characteristics of countries of destination and origin are also meaningful. At the origin level, the length of compulsory education positively influences educational performance. This is especially the case for migrant pupils who attended education in their countries of origin. We show also that at the destination level, a high student-teacher ratio in primary education positively affects migrant pupil’s scientific performance. Moreover, migrant children with low educated parents do not perform less in highly stratified systems and even perform better in moderately differentiated systems than they do in comprehensive one. But migrant children with highly educated parents perform worse in highly and moderately stratified systems. This study underscores the importance of educational system features as an explanation of differences in educational achievement across different origin groups and across migrants living in different destination countries. Although individual level characteristics account for the largest educational achievement differences, educational system characteristics have an effect on top of these individual level characteristics and the average educational performance in their countries of origin. Differences in educational systems contribute to explaining the effects of economic and political macro-characteristics of the countries of origin on the educational performance of migrant children in destination countries.

Subjective social status mobility and mental health of asylum seekers and refugees: Population-based, cross-sectional study in a German federal state

What people eat is a major contributor to health outcomes, including development of metabolic, cardiovascular, and other chronic diseases. Dietary quality varies widely is influenced by factors including sex, race, geographic location, socioeconomic status, self-perception of community standing, and occupation. These factors potentially interact, making an understanding of dietary quality difficult to fully disaggregate and therefore challenging to modify from a population health perspective. This study sought to analyze the interaction between subjective social status (SSS) and occupation on dietary quality among African Americans in the Deep South, as well as assess their marginal effects. Hypotheses Dietary quality will vary by occupational groups and levels of SSS. There will be an interaction between occupational groups and (SSS) on dietary quality. Methods: A cross-sectional analysis of data from participants of the Jackson Heart Study was completed. Participants ( n = 4,727) who had complete data for occupation, the alternative healthy eating index (AHEI, a measure of diet quality) score, and SSS (as measured by the Community MacArthur Scale) at exam 1 were included in the analysis. A general linear model with main and interaction effects for SSS and occupation group was fit to AHEI. Results: Type III F -tests from ANOVA showed no significant interaction between SSS and occupational groups with respect to mean AHEI scores ( p = 0.7635). Significant main effects were found for both the occupational groups and SSS level ( p < 0.0001). Pairwise comparisons of occupational groups revealed significantly different mean AHEI scores among several groups. Most notably, those in the management/professional occupation appeared to have higher mean AHEI compared to all the other groups. Mean AHEI was estimated to increase by 0.3723 units (SE = 0.0781) for every one-unit increase in SSS. Residual diagnostics and goodness-of-fit methods verified model adequacy. Conclusions In conclusion, occupation and SSS each contribute significantly to dietary quality as measured by AHEI; some occupational groups show significant differences in dietary quality; and there is no evidence of an interaction between occupation groups and SSS, indicating that the positive association between subjective social status and dietary quality is the same for each occupational group.

Background Changes in the subjective social status (SSS) of migrants, specifically between the pre- and post-migratory movement, can be a relevant determinant of their mental health condition. This study analyzed the effect of downward subjective social mobility to the mental health of asylum seekers and refugees (ASR) in Germany. Methods Through a random sampling procedure, 560 adult ASR (18+ years) were recruited across 58 collective accommodation centers in Germanys' 3rd largest state (2018). SSS was assessed with the MacArthur social ladder (10-rungs), in reference to the participants' position in the country of origin and in Germany. Quality of Life (QoL, measured with EUROHIS-QOL), anxiety (General Anxiety Disorder-2) and depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-2), were considered as mental health outcomes. Generalized linear regression models were fitted to measure associations between changes in SSS and each outcome. Results A loss of 3 or more steps in SSS from origin to Germany (compared to no-change) was significantly associated with poorer scores in QoL (B, standardized coefficient= -2.679, standard error, se = 1.351, p = 0.047), with more symptoms of depression (B = 1.156, se = 0.389, p = 0.003) and anxiety (B = 0.971, se = 0.432, p = 0.025), in models adjusted for SSS in the country of origin. The strength and direction of associations was unaltered after further adjusting for sex, age, educational level and time since arrival, although the coefficient for QoL was non-significant for those declaring a 3-step downward mobility (B= -2.494, se = 1.351, p = 0.066 for QoL; B = 1.048, se = 0.393, p = 0.008 for depression; and B = 1.006, se = 0.438, p = 0.022 for anxiety). Discussion The results suggest that interventions should focus on those experiencing social downward mobility and not only prioritize individuals with low social status. Early integration efforts and intersectoral measures to counter social downward mobility could prevent poor mental health among ASR. Key messages We analysed the impact to the quality of life and mental health of asylum seekers and refugees, of a change in subjective social status from country of origin to Germany. Asylum seekers and refugees residing in Germany, who perceived a downward social status mobility following their migration process, are at risk for poorer mental health.

The authors analyzed the association between downward social mobility in subjective social status among 3,056 immigrants to the United States and the odds of a major depressive episode. Using data from the National Latino and Asian American Study (2002-2003), the authors examined downward mobility by comparing immigrants' subjective social status in their country of origin with their subjective social status in the United States. The dependent variable was the occurrence of a past-year episode of major depression defined according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria. Logistic regression models were used to control for a variety of sociodemographic and immigration-related characteristics. Analyses suggested that a loss of at least 3 steps in subjective social status is associated with increased risk of a depressive episode (odds ratio = 3.0, 95% confidence interval: 1.3, 6.6). Other factors independently associated with greater odds of depression included Latino ethnicity, female sex, having resided for a longer time in the United States, and being a US citizen. The findings suggest that immigrants who experience downward social mobility are at elevated risk of major depression. Policies or interventions focused only on immigrants of low social status may miss another group at risk: those who experience downward mobility from a higher social status.

The welfare state can be perceived as a safety net which helps individuals adjust to situations of risk or transition. Starting from this idea of the welfare state as safety net, this study addresses whether and how welfare generosity may influence people’s willingness to migrate. In doing so, we distinguish between two potential mechanisms, innovatively focusing on welfare provisions in both the country of origin and destination. First, a generous welfare system in the country of origin may have a retaining impact, as individuals may be unwilling to migrate to countries offering less social protection. Second, generous welfare provisions in the country of destination may enable migration for individuals who are more intolerant of uncertainty and who otherwise would prefer to remain immobile. We test both mechanisms using stated preference data collected with a unique experimental design among over 300 Dutch Master students. Confirming the first mechanism, we indeed find that respondents report a lower willingness to migrate when evaluating hypothetical scenarios where the level of social protection was higher in the country of origin as compared with the country of destination. Furthermore, and in line with the second mechanism, individuals who are more intolerant of uncertainty generally report a lower willingness to migrate, yet their willingness to migrate increases for scenarios with higher levels of unemployment benefits. Our findings, thus, indeed suggest that welfare arrangements are mainly serving a safety net function and need to be understood in relative terms between the country of origin and destination.

Cross-border reproductive care: an Ethics Committee opinion.

Using survey data collected among recent Turkish and Syrian immigrants in Germany, we examine the relationship between newcomers’ self-assessed phenotypic visibility, their level of education, and their perceptions of discrimination. Theoretically, we argue that individuals who can be identified by visible cues, such as skin colour or a headscarf, face more and more persistent discrimination than others. In addition, according to the ‘integration paradox’, more educated individuals are more likely to interpret ambiguous negative incidents as discriminatory. Finally, while education generally reduces the risk of being exposed to discrimination due to the greater popularity of skilled migrants, this reduction is less pronounced for visible migrants. Based on these arguments, we expect perceptions of discrimination to be particularly pronounced among visible and highly educated individuals. In this group, a high risk of being discriminated against coincides with high aspirations for equality—and a pronounced awareness of unequal treatment. The results show that even within the same groups of origin, respondents who report that their foreign roots are visible to others perceive significantly more experiences of discrimination than those who report that they are not recognizable by visible characteristics. Migrants with higher levels of education do not generally perceive more discrimination than those with lower levels of education. Instead, it is the subgroup of visible and highly educated migrants who report particularly high levels of discrimination.

Background Prior research has identified perceptions of relative social status to affect mental health. We investigated whether migrants to Germany who perceive that they would have a higher relative social status if they were still in their country of origin experience more depressive symptoms than those who perceive no such status discrepancy. Methods Cross-sectional data were derived from a random sample of residents in the Berlin-Brandenburg region with a Croatian, Polish, Romanian, Syrian and/or Turkish citizenship (n = 728). Participants’ perception of their relative social status in Germany was measured using the MacArthur Scale of subjective social status (SSS). An adapted version of this scale was used to assess respondents’ hypothetical SSS in their country of origin if they had not migrated. Depressive symptoms were measured with the eight-item depression scale of the Patient Health Questionnaire. Diagonal reference models were used to examine whether discrepancies between the two status ratings were associated with depressive symptom severity. Results Most respondents reported a higher (35.6%) or similar (49.0%) hypothetical SSS in their country of origin compared to their SSS in Germany. Respondents whose SSS in Germany was lower than their hypothetical SSS in their country of origin experienced the most severe depressive symptoms. In the diagonal reference models, this association remained statistically significant (p < 0.05), even after adjusting for objective socioeconomic position and other covariates. The pattern was similar for both refugees and non-refugees. Conclusions Our findings indicate that perceptions of having a lower social status in Germany than hypothetically in one’s country of origin are concomitant with poorer mental health among migrants. Prospective data are needed to address questions of causation and the direction of effects. Key messages Migrants who perceived that they would have a higher social status if they had not left their country of origin reported higher depressive symptoms than those with no such status discrepancy. This association persisted after adjusting for objective socioeconomic position in Germany.

Despite decades of research on naturalization, the relationship between gender and the decision to naturalize is under-theorized. Given that women's lived experiences of migration are distinctive from those of men, we ask whether and how gender plays into immigrants’ naturalization decisions. We explore gendered migration trajectories by incorporating Michael Piore's concept of social status as an additional rationale for naturalization. To better understand immigrants’ naturalization decisions, our research leverages semi-structured interviews conducted in 2018 with immigrants residing in California to illuminate gendered decision-making processes that underpin naturalization choices. We find that naturalization is conditioned by gender when women's status in the origin country differs from their status in the destination country. Where women's rights are less extensive in origin countries, we find that both genders value citizenship in the destination country but for different reasons. Women respondents who enjoyed enhanced status in the destination country valued citizenship because it secured their ability to remain in the destination country, while retaining their ability to visit friends and care for family in their origin country. By contrast, men respondents who lost status in the destination country planned return to their origin country to regain their societal position but valued the destination-country passport as a status symbol in their origin country and because the passport provided enhanced mobility and economic opportunities in the global economy. Where status differences between the origin and destination countries were minimal, gender was not a significant factor in naturalization decisions. We point to a fruitful extension of the research agenda on naturalization by incorporating a theoretical framework that acknowledges gendered migration and naturalization trajectories.

This chapter gives an overview of the patterns of African migration using quantitative data from the MAFE surveys. Three broad topics are addressed: (1) patterns of mobility, focusing on trends in departures, returns and circulation, (2) profiles of migrants, and (3) migration routes and strategies. Using extensive data on three origin countries and six destination countries, it identifies some common patterns and trends, as well as heterogeneity and changes in African migration. A key finding is that African migration is diverse. Trends in departures and returns have developed differently across countries, and migrants’ profiles and motives for departure also vary widely by destination and origin country. While migration to Europe has generally become more complex, strategies and routes have also varied more widely across origin and destination countries.

BackgroundLow socioeconomic status (SES) confers access to material resources and social standing and is an established risk factor of both depressive symptoms and suicidality. Subjective social status (SSS) assesses how people perceive their position within the social hierarchy and has been proposed to impact mental health. This study examined the relationship between SES and depressive symptoms and suicidality and tested whether SSS mediated these associations. MethodsThis study drew on publicly available survey data from the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). Participants were surveyed at baseline in 2008 (N = 4948; aged 28.8 years) and at followed up in 2016–2018 (N = 3509; aged 37.8 years). SES was gauged using personal and household income, assets, education, and job prestige. SSS was assessed using the MacArthur Scale. Depressive symptoms were assessed using four-items from the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Scale of Depression (CESD) and participants reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in the past year. ResultsBoth low SES and SSS were associated with elevated levels of depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts in cross-sectional and prospective analyses. SSS explained 27 % of the association between SES and depressive symptoms, 51 % of the relationship between SES and suicidal ideation, and 37 % of the link between SES and suicide attempts on average. ConclusionsThese findings contribute to understanding the long-term effects of SSS and suggest that perceptions of status may be a key mechanism through which low SES forecasts the development of depressive symptoms and suicidality.

ABSTRACTThe relevance of recent migrants’ broader structural position for their destination country identification is studied in this manuscript. In three ways, we build upon previous work referring to an integration paradox, concluding that more structurally integrated migrants turn away from the destination country. First, we extend existing research that mainly tests this for migrants’ educational level, by acknowledging that structural integration also includes migrants’ economic position. Second, we elaborate on the relative deprivation framework by testing how a mismatch between educational and economic position affects destination country identification. Third, we not only study how migrants feel about the native population, used as outcome in most integration paradox studies, but also for a sense of belonging to the destination country. We test our hypotheses cross-sectionally and dynamically using the New Immigrants to the Netherlands Survey. Results indicate that migrants’ educational and economic position hardly affects the way they feel about the native population, whilst a higher structural position does hamper a sense of belonging to the destination country. This latter finding is not explained by a mismatch between educational and economic position, as a mismatch does not systematically affect new immigrants’ feelings about the native population or their sense of belonging.

Immigrants experience an ambiguous social position: on the one hand, they tend to be positively selected on resources from the origin country; on the other, they often occupy the lower rungs of the status ladder in receiving countries. This study explores the implications of this ambiguity for two important individual outcomes: subjective social status and perceived financial situation. We study the diverse sample of immigrants in the European Social Survey and use the fact that, due to country differences in educational distributions, a given education level can entail a very different rank in the sending and receiving countries. We document a robust relationship whereby immigrants who ranked higher in the origin than in the destination country see themselves as being comparatively worse off. This finding suggests that the social position before migration provides an important reference point by which immigrants judge their success in the new country.