Below the Surface: Swimming Pools as Sites of Memory in Post-Apartheid South African Art

To investigate the causes of child drowning and determine the need for changes in the legislation as well as improvements to the inspection and enforcement of current legislation related to barriers surrounding private swimming pools. There were 3 stages to the study: a retrospective review of coroner's data, an audit of swimming pool inspections, and in-depth interviews with swimming pool inspectors in Western Australia. The incidence of childhood drowning (per population) and compliance rates of swimming pools (per 1000 swimming pools) to the legislation were measured. During the 12-year observational period (1988-2000) 50 children younger than 5 years drowned in private swimming pools in Western Australia with an overall incidence of drowning of 4.4 per 100 000 children per year. Sixty-eight percent of drownings occurred in pools that did not have 4-sided fencing with an almost 2-fold increased risk (incidence rate ratio: 1.78; 95% confidence interval: 1.40-1.79) of a child's drowning in a swimming pool with 3-sided versus 4-sided fencing. The compliance rate of swimming pools (compliance to the current legislation) at first inspection was approximately 400 per 1000 swimming pools. Almost two thirds of the swimming pools in which children drowned had only 3-sided fencing. With a combination of a change in legislation, enhanced inspection processes, and public education, the incidence of drowning in private swimming pools in Western Australia could be reduced in the coming years.

Approximately 1.7 million inhabitants of 378 km 2 area‎of‎Gaza‎Strip‎don’t‎have‎enough‎recreational‎areas,‎except‎ Gaza beach which suffers from sewage pollution as well as some public and private swimming pools which considered as merely recreational places. The main objective of this study is to assess the microbiological quality of swimming pools water in Gaza Strip to assure its health safety for swimmers. Sampling and analysis were conducted by the Ministry of Health over a period of about four years (2010-2013). Samples were collected from seven central swimming pools in Gaza Strip periodically and examined for Total Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms. In addition, Staphylococcus aureus, Faecal Streptococcus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from the swimming pools samples with different percentages. Percentages of microbial contamination, concentration of free chlorine and pH level were examined in the studied swimming pools and compared with the international standards and the annual trends were demonstrated. The results show that, about 75% of the recorded data regarding pH level are unacceptable, while 100% of the recorded data about the concentration of free chlorine within the swimming pools are unacceptable. About 57% of the collected samples were contaminated by Total Coliforms, 39% were contaminated by Faecal Coliforms, 46% were contaminated by Staphylococcus aureus, 21% were contaminated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 18% were contaminated by Faecal streptococci. The annual trends show increase in percentage of contamination to be the worst during the year 2013. Therefore, proper intensive surveillance and water chlorination is needed periodically.

Predicting pool safety habits and intentions of Australian parents and carers for their young children

Drowning is the fourth leading cause of unintentional injury death in Los Angeles County. We examined data collected by the Los Angeles County Coroner's Office on drownings that occurred in the county from 1976 through 1984. There were 1587 drownings (1130 males and 457 females) during this nine-year period, for an annual rate of 2.36 drownings per 100,000 persons (3.44 for males and 1.33 for females). The largest proportion of drownings (44.5%) for both sexes, and in almost every age group, occurred in private swimming pools. Children 2 to 3 years of age had the highest swimming-pool drowning rate (7.95). The elderly also experienced high drowning rates, primarily in swimming pools and bathtubs. Drowning-site profiles varied dramatically by age and sex. These findings indicate a need for Los Angeles County to address the problem of drownings among infants and toddlers in private swimming pools and to investigate the failure of regulations requiring fencing of swimming pools to prevent these deaths. These findings also suggest several potential opportunities for preventive intervention by physicians and demonstrate that health professionals cannot rely on national drowning-site profiles when developing local drowning prevention strategies.

Swimming pools constitute an important part of the expanding suburban landscapes of many cities of southern Europe. Yet we know relatively little about their characteristics and especially about whether or not they capture a substantial part of urban water for the benefit of a few that could be used for other more essential tasks, especially in periods of scarcity. In this paper, taking the metropolitan region of Barcelona as a case study, we estimate the number of residential (private) swimming pools in this area, their characteristics and their water consumption. Our analysis is set against the context of important changes in the nature of the urbanisation process in Barcelona and in other southern European cities, namely the expansion of low-density growth and with this the expansion of outdoor water uses such as gardens planted with turf grass and swimming pools. However, results do not seem to support the assumption that swimming pools take a substantial part of the domestic water resources of the region or that they are a luxury affordable only by the very rich. Swimming pools represent little over 1 per cent of total domestic water consumption of the Barcelona region and they can be found in both higher and lower income municipalities. Nevertheless, swimming pools tend to be more often found in richer municipalities, which are also those observing higher per capita water consumption.

Human exposure to chlorination products has markedly increased during the 2007 century, first with the chlorination of drinking water and later, beginning in the 1960s, with the development of public and private swimming pools. Studies in Belgium, supported by observations made in Norway; Germany and the Netherlands, suggest that chlorination products in indoor and outdoor swimming pools act as chemical adjuvants that promote the development of allergic diseases including asthma, hay fever and allergic rhinitis. In subjects sensitized against airborne allergens or with higher serum IgE levels, the relative risk of asthma rises by 1 to 2% for each hour spent in a chlorinated swimming pool - indoors or out. These findings have led to the chlorine hypothesis, which proposes that the rise of allergic diseases in the developed world results less from the greater lever of hygiene (hygiene hypothesis) than from the increasing and largely uncontrolled exposure of children to chlorination products used for swimming pool disinfection.

Swimming is generally considered to be a healthy leisure activity for both the young and old. Swimming is even often advised as the most appropriate sport for asthmatic children 1–3, mainly (but probably not solely) on the grounds that inhaling moist air is less conducive to triggering exercise-induced asthma 4. However, for obvious reasons of microbiological safety, the water of public and private swimming pools must be disinfected 5. The most common procedure for water disinfection consists of chlorination. As with all human and technological intervention, the use of chlorine-based products to disinfect swimming water may lead to a number of unwanted effects, in particular the presence of chlorine-containing compounds in the air. Consequently, chlorination may affect the respiratory health of either those who work as swimming attendants or instructors, or those who use the pools as customers, particularly children and the general public, but also competitive swimmers. Although the issue of the chlorination of public water supplies has received considerable attention, mainly with regard to the presence of potentially carcinogenic or teratogenic chlorinated by-products 6, 7, the respiratory hazards of chlorinated swimming water have been less well addressed. Thus, old 8, 9 and even more recent 10 reports on indoor pollution do not deal with the air of chlorinated swimming pools, despite the generally obvious and readily noticeable irritant character of this type of environment, even in well-maintained pools 11. Chlorination is the most common procedure for water disinfection of public water supplies and swimming pools. Chlorine may be added to water as the gaseous form (Cl2), which rapidly hydrolyzes to hypochlorous acid (HOCl), or as sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or Ca(OCl)2). Hypochlorite, for disinfection, may also be produced by adding so-called hypochlorite-generating agents, such as dichloroisocyanurate, …

BackgroundIn France, national surveys on drowning have been contributing to the epidemiological surveillance of injuries for 15 years. The purposes of these surveys were to describe the characteristics and the...

Childhood drowning in Georgia: A geographic information system analysis

ObjectiveTo describe the characteristics and the risk factors of unintentional drowning in France, and to contribute to their prevention.MethodA prospective survey was set up in the whole country from June...

For some time sanitarians and public health officials have had their eyes turned toward the public and private swimming pools. That these pools are a menace to the public health, if not conducted along sanitary lines, is the opinion of all who have made an investigation of the subject. Unfortunately, when such bacteria as produce disease in man are encountered, they are generally found more or less closely associated with mankind. Anything that comes more or less in general contact with a number of different individuals, as does the water in a swimming pool, may be looked upon with suspicion, for it is sure to contain organisms associated with mankind. Science has established the fact, that the body of a man of clean habits, having but a small amount of hair, may harbor several billion bacteria. A hairy man of clean habits was found to harbor fourteen billion bacteria, while on the body of an unclean man, having an average amount of hair, was found twenty-five billion bacteria. These figures may seem large to those who are not familiar with bacteriological technic, yet those, who are familiar with microscopic work, know the number of organisms that will adhere to a standard platinum loop from a broth culture, will readily see that these figures are not excessive. In making your mental picture of the horde of microorganisms from the average human body, remember, that if it were possible to so concentrate them, they could all be contained within a few drops of water and still there would be room for more, for a single drop of water may harbor as many as five hundred million organisms. Science having established, within a reasonable degree of accuracy, the number of bacteria that might be found on the average human being, let us now engage in solving a problem in simple arithmetic. Let us take a pool having a capacity of one million gallons of water, with an average weekly attendence of ten thousand

Electromagnetic Interference in a Private Swimming Pool: Case report

Cervical spine injuries after diving into private swimming pools can lead to dramatic consequences. We reviewed 34 patients hospitalized in our center between 1996 and 2006. Data was collected from their initial admission and from follow-up appointments. The injuries were sustained by young men in 97% (mean age 27) and the majority happened during the summer (88%). Fractures were at C5-C7 in 70%. American Spinal Injury Association class (ASIA) on admission was A for 8 patients, B for 4, C for 4, D for 1, and E for 17. There were 23 surgical spine stabilizations. Final ASIA class was A for 6 patients, B for 1, C for 3, D for 5, and E for 18. The mean duration of hospitalization was 21.3 days in our neurosurgical center (mean overall cost: 36,000 Euros/patient) plus 10.6 months in rehabilitation center for the 15 patients admitted who had an ASIA class A to C. Mean overall direct cost for a patient with class A is almost 300,000 Euros, compared to around 10,000 Euros for patients with class D and E. In addition, a profound impact on personal and professional life was seen in many cases including 11 divorces and 7 job losses. Dangerous diving into swimming pools can result in spinal injuries with drastic consequences, including permanent physical disability and a profound impact on socio-professional status. Moreover, there are significant financial costs to society. Better prevention strategies should be implemented to reduce the impact of this public health problem.

International labour migration has expanded across the globe creating new migration patterns within countries in the southern hemisphere. Domestic service is one such informal labour sector where international labour migration is taking place. This large-scale transnational labour migration from Southeast Asian nations, in particular, is due to an increased demand for domestic and care workers in the service industries of countries in the northern and southern hemisphere. Domestic service has become one of the key drivers of female labour migration. Hochschild refers to this type of migration as ‘care drain’, in which women from Third World countries leave their own children in the care of female relatives back home and migrate to care for the children and households of professional women in the West to support their own families. The intimacy that often characterizes the relationship between the employer and the domestic worker makes her seem like a family member – not a worker. This sense of intimacy can be misleading, however, as the relationship between the domestic worker and the employer is characterized by a difference of status, resources and power. According to an estimate given by the International Labour Organization (hereinafter referred to as ILO), domestic work constitutes one of the largest, yet least visible service industries in the world. The increase in female migration and the nature of domestic work constitutes a major challenge to the protection of the human and labour rights of domestic workers. As domestic work is performed within the privacy of the home, it is frequently excluded from the scope of labour legislation. Human Rights Watch has stated that almost 30 per cent of the world’s domestic workers are employed in countries where they are excluded from national labour laws, including weekly rest days, limits to hours of work, minimum wage coverage and overtime pay. Even when partially covered, domestic workers are often excluded from key protections such as minimum age requirements, maternity leave, social security and occupational health measures. Historically, performing domestic service for another’s household has been an important way of earning a livelihood for women. Affluent families in both developing and developed countries engage both local and migrant women domestic workers. In recent years, Pakistan has become an employment destination for migrant Filipino domestic workers (hereinafter referred to as MFDWs), who are being employed by affluent Pakistani households, despite the presence of a large number of Pakistani female domestic workers available to take such positions. The employment of MFDWs is increasingly a marker of status and affluence, reflecting the racialized and class hierarchies that continue to infuse the sphere of domestic work, both in Pakistan and elsewhere. Based on a small, exploratory, sample qualitative study of the lived experiences of MFDWs, this chapter addresses the question of whether international human rights and labour standards can provide protection and empowerment to MFDWs. Drawing upon the feminist concept of ‘women’s agency’, this chapter examines the extent to which law reforms, drawing upon evolving human rights standards, can support migrant domestic workers’ capacity for agency, and more effective implementation of decent work standards.

Made Visible: Contemporary South African Fashion and Identity curated by Kathryn Gunsch