Abstract
Introduction: The mechanobiology and response of bone formation to strain under physiological loading is well established, however investigation into exceedingly soft scaffolds relative to cancellous bone is limited. In this study we designed and 3D printed mechanically-optimised low-stiffness implants, targeting specific strain ranges inducing bone formation and assessed their biological performance in a pre-clinical in vivo load-bearing tibial tuberosity advancement (TTA) model. The TTA model provides an attractive pre-clinical framework to investigate implant osseointegration within an uneven loading environment due to the dominating patellar tendon force.A knee finite element model from ovine CT data was developed to determine physiological target strains from simulated TTA surgery. We 3D printed low-stiffness Ti wedge osteotomy implants with homogeneous stiffness of 0.8 GPa (Ti1), 0.6 GPa (Ti2) and a locally-optimised design with a 0.3 GPa cortex and soft 0.1 GPa core (Ti3), for implantation in a 12-week ovine tibial advancement osteotomy (9mm). We quantitatively assessed bone fusion, bone area, mineral apposition rate and bone formation rate.Optimised Ti3 implants exhibited evenly high strains throughout, despite uneven wedge osteotomy loading. We demonstrated that higher strains above 3.75%, led to greater bone formation. Histomorphometry showed uniform bone ingrowthin optimised Ti3 compared to homogeneous designs (Ti1 and Ti2), and greater bone-implant contact. The greatest bone formation scores were seen in Ti3, followed by Ti2 and Ti1.Results from our study indicate lower stiffness and higher strain ranges than normally achieved in Ti scaffolds stimulate early bone formation. By accounting for loading environments through rational design, implants can be optimised to improve uniform osseointegration. Design and 3D printing of exceedingly soft titanium orthopaedic implants enhance strain induced bone formation and have significant importance in future implant design for knee, hip arthroplasty and treatment of large load-bearing bone defects.
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