Barriers and drivers for tidal energy development: A case study of Ireland

On April 29, 2009 the U.S Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service (now renamed Bureau of Offshore Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement --BOEMRE) published comprehensive new regulations in the Federal Register applicable to renewable energy and alternate use of facilities on the United States (U.S.) Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). The final rule (Title 30, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Parts 250, 285, and 290) defines a new process for offshore renewable energy facilities to apply for and obtain U.S. Government authorization to build and operate offshore renewable energy facilities on the U.S. OCS. These new regulations apply to offshore renewable energy projects such as proposed wind farms, wave farms, or ocean current energy extraction devices located in federal waters of the OCS. The new regulations also describe a complementary role for the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regarding licensing of hydrokinetic energy devices on the OCS. This paper describes how this new regulatory process has evolved and what it means to developers of offshore renewable energy projects on the OCS. This paper will discuss the progress that has been made in defining the regulatory framework and some of the regulatory issues that continue to present challenges in obtaining timely permitting decisions from U.S. federal regulatory authorities. In particular, a number of specific issues related to the potential environmental impact of offshore renewable energy projects will be explored. A well defined, efficient, and predictable regulatory process is critical to successful development of offshore renewable energy projects on the U.S. OCS. Introduction Shifting public sentiment and policy regarding the effects of carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels on climate change have increased the overall level of public support for low and no-carbon sources of energy production. The nascent offshore renewable energy industry in the United States stands to benefit from these changes. While the positive shift in public sentiment may be helpful to project proponents, creating and refining predictable state and federal regulatory permitting schemes persists as a key ongoing requirement of the emerging offshore renewable energy industry in the United States (U.S.). Several recent developments at the federal level have worked to clarify the applicable regulatory scheme for offshore renewable energy projects. These developments are discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Each of the state and federal project permitting processes includes requirements to assess the potential environmental impact of the proposed prototype or full-scale project. Possible environmental impacts of offshore renewable energy projects have been categorized in several recent studies by the U.S. Department of Interior, Minerals Management Service (MMS) [1] and the U.S. Department of Energy [2]. It should be noted that in 2010, following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the MMS was reorganized and has been renamed the Bureau of Offshore Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE). This paper will use the acronym MMS to describe those regulatory activities that occurred prior to the reorganization of the agency, and BOEMRE to discuss those activities that occurred subsequent to the reorganization. The federal permitting scheme for offshore renewable energy projects on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) has been evolving over the past few years. Initially, the permitting scheme was the subject of a jurisdictional dispute between the MMS and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Each agency claimed exclusive permitting authority for selected offshore renewable energy projects. The jurisdictional dispute centered on those projects that used hydrokinetic energy, essentially the movement of water via waves or currents, to produce energy. This jurisdictional dispute was ultimately resolved in April 2009 with an agreement that both agencies would share jurisdiction over hydrokinetic energy project on the OCS and MMS would have exclusive permitting authority over non-hydrokinetic energy projects (e.g. wind and solar energy). The resolution of this federal agency jurisdictional dispute is discussed in greater detail in the next section.

The outcome of the ADORET project, commissioned by the International Energy Agency Implementing Agreement for Renewable Energy Technology Deployment (IEA-RETD), and executed by Mott MacDonald, will be presented. Globally, offshore renewable energy is a burgeoning industry which has the potential to grow rapidly in a number of countries. While tidal and wave energy is at an earlier stage of development with technology demonstrations being pursued in many locations worldwide, the offshore wind industry is already considered mature. The overall objective of the ADORET project is to assist policy makers and project developers by providing them a better understanding of the specifics of offshore renewable energy (ORE) technologies and to give them practical guidelines in how to foster their deployment. The project has an international perspective, focusing on the 11 IEA-RETD members as well as 7 additional countries. In an introductory phase, the project has delivered a brief of the current status of advancement of ORE technologies. It then highlighted the available resources, and gave an overview of policies in place and deployment to date. In a second phase, the economics and financing of ORE projects have been examined. The respective maturity levels of technologies have been discussed, as well as capital and operational costs structures. An analysis of commercial and technical risks, and of their impact on the financing costs, has been performed. Mitigation measures can reduce these to an acceptable level. The respective merits and constraints associated to the main financing options available to ORE projects will be presented. An in-depth review of technical and non-technical barriers and challenges to the deployment of ORE technologies has been performed and will be presented. Technical barriers covered included technology and design optimisation, reliability, installation and decommissioning, operation and maintenance, grid connection and integration. Non-technical barriers investigated included environmental, safety, regulatory and licensing, competing uses, skills, supply chain and infrastructures, and financial issues. Examples of country and technology specific barriers are highlighted. In the final part the project, a detailed review of policies in place to promote ORE technologies deployment and of their effectiveness has been performed. Mitigation measures to barriers previously identified are also presented. Based on this analysis, a generic model policy framework is proposed, to be used as a possible template by policy makers in interested countries. Guidelines for project design and development are presented. The full version of the ADORET report and its appendices are shortly to be made available to download at www.iea-retd.org.

Harvesting tidal stream energy from the ocean for electricity generation has been considered as an energy resource alternative to fossil fuels for mitigating the negative impact of climate change and enhancing energy security and coastal resilience. Numerical models have been used extensively to characterize and assess tidal resources at potential tidal energy development sites. Turbulence plays an important role in site selection and tidal turbine farm deployment. However, most of the numerical modeling studies for tidal energy resource characterization do not include turbulence characteristics because of the limitation of Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes coastal ocean model in resolving the inertial sub-range turbulence scales. However, studies also demonstrated that turbulence properties, such as turbulence intensity and turbulence kinetic energy, simulated by the coastal ocean models based on turbulence closures can be useful in assisting tidal resource characterization at tidal energy sites. In this study, we evaluated four General Ocean Turbulence Model (GOTM) turbulence closure models implemented in a tidal hydrodynamic model –Finite Volume Community Ocean Model (FVCOM) to characterize the tidal energy resource in the Western Passage, Maine, USA – a top ranked tidal energy site. The four turbulence closure models used in this analysis are k–kl (Mellor–Yamada Level 2.5), k-ε, k–ω, and a generic model. Model sensitivities showed that the MY2.5 model performed the best in comparison with the field measurements. In particular, the simulated time series of turbulence intensity and kinetic energy matched the observed data very well in the Western Passage. Detailed analysis was conducted to characterize turbulence properties on the horizontal plane and at selective cross-sections. This study demonstrated that turbulence properties simulated by a coastal ocean model, along with tidal hydrodynamic properties, can be very informative for tidal energy resource characterization and project site selection, as recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) technical specifications (IEC TS 62600-201).

Committee Mandate Concern for load analysis and structural design of offshore renewable energy devices. Attention shall be given to the interaction between the load and structural response of fixed and floating installations taking due consideration of the stochastic and extreme nature of the ocean environment. Aspects related to design, prototype testing, certification, marine operations, levelized cost of energy and life cycle management shall be considered. Introduction This is the sixth time that ISSC has included the Specialist Committee V.4 Offshore Renewable Energy, which started in 2006. Two members of the committee for this term (2018-2022) were involved in the work for the previous term (2016-2018), which formulates a good base for the cooperative work in the last three years. The mandate of the committee was discussed at the beginning of the work, and it was slightly modified to include extreme environmental conditions and interaction of structures to the seabed, reliability-based design, safety and integrated design, topics which have been central to the discussion for developing offshore renewable energy, and hence should be discussed in the committee report. Another variation of this committee’s report has been the consideration of floating wind developments in a separate chapter as deployments are currently moving further offshore and in deeper waters, as well as the explicit reference to hybrid solutions. Offshore wind energy still dominates offshore renewable energy technologies with extensive installed capacity and ambitious targets which constitute this technology as a key contributor towards the ambitious 2050 net zero emissions targets. For these targets to be achieved, it is imperative to innovate and further develop not only wind energy but also other offshore, marine and hybrid energy technologies, harvesting as much as possible the energy potential. Challenges related to wind energy include, among others, the upscaling at both a unit as well as a farm level, development of foundations relevant to deep waters, serial production of floating foundations and effective mooring systems, and investigation of support systems to inform end-of-life scenarios including service life extension, repowering or decommissioning. Marine renewables on the other hand, still need to overcome challenges related to structural response in extreme phenomena and reliability of mechanical components which sharply escalate the levelized cost of energy. Within this report we have considered peer reviewed academic articles, selected conference proceedings and some reference industry reports. Overall, more than 500 sources have been reviewed and 350 have eventually qualified to be included in this state-of-the-art review. The time span of the review includes contributions from August 2017 to August 2021. The term of this committee has been extended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The report has been organized into 9 subsections. Following this short introduction, a session on bottom fixed wind turbines is included, following the structure of the previous committee’s report, with the addition of design provisions for extreme phenomena which are particularly relevant in South-East Asia and a subsection on advanced structural analysis. Next, a dedicated section on floating wind turbines is included, following a similar structure, with the addition of moorings and dynamic cables which is relevant to this class of foundations. Next three subsections present developments on wave energy converters, tidal and ocean current turbines, and other offshore renewable energy technologies and hybrid solutions. Following this, a subsection on life-cycle cost and operational management of offshore renewable energy is presented, identifying key cost elements that attract attention for research and development. Section 8 summarizes the efforts of the committee members to investigate a benchmarking study on the comparison of the existing design guidelines with respect to design of mooring systems. Finally, the last section of the report lists some conclusions which stem out of the review and key challenges that research should try to address in the next few years.

The design and feasibility analysis of a combined offshore renewable energy system for Bonny coastal area in Nigeria have been conducted. Statistical parameters obtained from resource assessments of ocean tidal current/range, offshore wind and wave energy sources were used to determine the configuration of the conversion technologies adopted. Then, the combined system integrated with pumped hydro storage was designed using the result of the obtainable resource for the location. Simulations were carried out using MATLAB codes to optimize the system. Results identified tidal energy as the most economical offshore renewable energy source at the location. Offshore wind velocities were higher than land wind velocities when compared with other research findings for the region. The average wind velocities at the offshore location were 3.9 m/s and 5.1 m/s at elevations of 10 m and 100 m above sea levels. The offshore renewable energy climate at Bonny compared well with locations in other countries where pilot or full-scale power generating systems already exist. The present designed system can provide a stable 187 [MW] mean daily power at a unit cost of 0.226 [$/kWh] using a project life span of 25 [years]. The system configuration utilizes 10% wind, 10% wave, 25% tidal range and 55% tidal current energy sources. Lower interest rates and little or no inflation made the system more feasible. These findings contribute to preliminary database of offshore renewable energy resource assessments intended to attract government funding, incentives and subsidies to drive research and development in offshore renewable energy utilization in Nigeria.

This article examines the emergence of offshore renewable energy (i.e., offshore wind, ocean, and tidal energy) in the Asia-Pacific region with a particular focus on developments in China, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. It outlines plans for the development of offshore wind, tidal, and wave energy projects as well as emerging legal and policy measures supporting the growth of offshore renewable energy in the region. The article highlights that, although some progress has been made on laws and other measures to facilitate offshore renewable energy in the Asia-Pacific region, clear regulatory frameworks are still emerging in these jurisdictions.

This study was conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM). It provides a comprehensive feasibility assessment of multiple offshore renewable energy technologies in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) to inform BOEM's strategic plans related to possible Outer Continental Shelf alternative energy leasing activities in the GoM. In coordination with Gulf Coast states, the study includes some information on offshore renewable energy potential in state waters for future energy planning. The goal of the study is to survey potential offshore renewable energy sources in the GoM and quantify their feasibility relating to resource adequacy, technology maturity, and the potential for competitive cost. The study provides a review of available technologies and concepts for generating offshore renewable energy, including a high-level assessment of the current state of each technology and its potential for future advances. It provides a breakdown of resource capacity for each renewable energy technology and a recommendation that offshore wind be pursued for future study as the most promising technology. The renewable technologies that were considered include offshore wind, wave energy, tidal energy, ocean current energy, offshore solar energy, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), cold water source cooling, and hydrogen (as a storage medium to utilize existing pipeline infrastructure). The resource capacity for each of these renewable energy sources was quantified for both the gross resource capacity potential (gross resource) and the technical resource capacity potential (technical resource) using the methodology described in an earlier NREL report. Many of these sources are very immature from a commercial perspective, which makes some of the comparisons difficult. In many cases, new methods were developed to estimate nominal power density for each technology type, which were necessary to convert the resource areas into deployable gross and technical resource capacity potentials.

Offshore renewable energy resources are abundant and widely available worldwide, offering significant contributions to the clean energy net-zero carbon emission targets. This paper reviews strong and emerging offshore renewable energy sources, including wind (fixed bottom and floating), hydrokinetic wave and tidal energy, floating solar photovoltaics (FPVs) and hybrid energy systems. A literature review of recent sources yields a timely comprehensive comparison of the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), technology readiness levels (TRLs), capacity factors (CFs) and global generation installed and potential, where offshore wind is recognized as being the strongest contributor to the clean energy transition and thus receives the most attention. Offshore wind grid integration, converter technologies, criticality, resiliency and energy storage integration are presented, in addition to challenges and research directions. While wave, tidal and FPV will never dominate the global grid, they have vital roles to play in the global energy transition; thus, they are reviewed, including technologies, installations, potential, challenges and research directions. Offshore hybrid energy systems, combining different offshore renewable energy sources, are also discussed along with example installations. The paper concludes with a discussion of the potential environmental impacts of offshore renewable energy development, including recommendations.

Offshore renewable energy (ORE) sources, such as offshore wind turbines, wave energy converters, and tidal and current turbines, have experienced rapid growth in the past decade. The combination of wave, wind, and current energy devices in hybrid marine platforms that use synergies through proper combinations has been a recent scientific focus. The new concepts and structures being investigated require developing new design and analysis approaches that implement novel numerical modeling tools and simulation methods, thus advancing science, technology, and engineering. ORE structures may be subject to complex loads and load effects, which demand comprehensive and accurate numerical modeling representations of the physics underpinning the problem. Important factors that affect design, functionality, structural integrity, and performance of offshore structures include (but are not limited to): fluid–structure interactions, controller actions, intense dynamic effects, nonlinear loadings, extreme and harsh weather conditions, and impact pressure loads. Furthermore, these factors cannot be considered in isolation, since each factor is potentially coupled with another, requiring fully coupled models. To enable further growth in reliable ORE technologies, more advanced numerical tools and nonlinear modeling are needed.

Feasibility analysis of offshore renewables penetrating local energy systems in remote oceanic areas – A case study of emissions from an electricity system with tidal power in Southern Alaska

Offshore renewable energy, including offshore wind, tidal and wave energy, has sometimes been represented as opposition‐free alternatives to controversial technologies such as onshore wind turbines, and has received increasing attention from social scientists in recent years. A fragmented literature has emerged investigating public engagement with these technologies and the determinants of public acceptance, comprising 59 key studies—the majority investigating offshore wind energy (59%). This literature review argues that while the ways in which public actors engage with offshore renewable energy are to some extent similar to onshore energy infrastructure, there are also important differences. These include the generally lower levels of public knowledge about the technologies, a changing role for visual impacts, a fundamentally different, marine, spatial context, and different sets of stakeholders in different decision‐making arenas. There is a need to explore as yet unasked and unanswered questions—going beyond ‘established’ variables identified in the onshore wind‐based ‘beyond NIMBY’ literature—especially regarding the role of the marine location of these technologies, and the cross‐technology and cross‐disciplinary applicability of findings. In order to more fully understand public responses to energy infrastructures, future research needs to move beyond case studies of onshore wind developments, adopting more diverse and ambitious research designs and methodologies.This article is categorized under: Perceptions, Behavior, and Communication of Climate Change > Behavior Change and Responses

The book ‘Offshore Renewable Energy’ is intended to provide an overview of wave, tidal and offshore wind energy technologies for industry, academia and policy-makers. It touches on resource assessm...

Satellite data for the offshore renewable energy sector: Synergies and innovation opportunities

In their quest to promote renewable energy, governments often partner with industry and finance key stakeholders. This is particularly true when it comes to developing ocean resources, whether it be tidal or offshore wind energy. In such a challenging environment, it is of important therefore to understand how these different actors can best cooperate to promote sustainable ocean governance. Drawing on data from early 2000s, this paper examines how ocean energy development, subsequently referred to as offshore renewable energy (ORE) has been performing both nationally and internationally over time. It then analyzes the role of public support in the industry across countries, both theoretically and in practice. Factors, such as policies (in particular public funding in the shape of subsidies), both corporate and government Research and Development (R&D), environmental goals and policies that have played a positive role in the promotion of the industry, are then examined, and remaining challenges facing the ORE industry are outlined.

Tidal stream energy resource characterization in the Salish Sea