Autonomous transportation and delivery in logistics

This chapter examines the legal standing of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) in relation to international conventions which govern the use of commercial vessels and discusses their potential contractual and non-contractual realities. MASS routinely operate with little or no human involvement and have some or all of the following characteristics. The level of autonomy of a MASS depends on its function. Existing MASS display a number of varying degrees of autonomy and can be subdivided into different classes. MASS falling into the category of periodically unmanned ship would be able to operate without a crew on board for extended periods of time. For MASS to operate effectively they will require collision avoidance systems that are compliant with the collision regulations. The conventions may become applicable in the future when the construction of larger MASS is financed by providing security over the MASS through a mortgage.

INTRODUCTION.Onthebasisofprovisionsofthe1982UNConventionontheLawoftheSeaandotherlegaldocuments, the article analyzes topical issues of the current and future international legal regulation of the use of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS), which are capable of completely transforming the shipping and international maritime transportation industry in the near future.MATERIALSANDMETHODS.Theissues raisedinthearticlearestructurallydividedintothreemaingroups.Thefirstoneisconnectedwiththeanthropocentrismofthe‘pre-digitalera’law– that is, with its inability to work with other autonomous subjects except for people and various forms of their organization. The second is determined by specific characteristics of autonomous systems themselves, among which their non-determinism and ability to self-study should be noted. The third group is directly related to the legal support of MASS cybersecurity in the new conditions.RESEARCHRESULTS.Whenwriting the article, the authors proceeded from the fact that the issue of extending the application of international maritime law to MASS cannot be solved by simply transferring its regulatory impact to new subjects (objects) – artificial intelligence systems or autonomous ships themselves. Such a transfer is impossible, since human and artificial intelligence use completely different decisionmaking algorithms.DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSIONS.Th mainconclusionofthearticleisthatthewidespreadintegrationofMASSintothepracticeofinternationalmaritimetransportationwillbea turning point not only for the very procedure for its performance, but also for the algorithm of legal regulation of this sphere of public relations. Since the emergence of autonomous ships will mainly result in a gradual decrease of the human component in managing them in favor of artificial intelligence and related automated systems, international law of the sea is unlikely to continue to operate in its current form. It will take a lot of work to adapt and changeitsnormsinaccordancewiththenewrealitiesofthe‘digitalera’ofhumandevelopment.

With active research being conducted on maritime autonomous surface ships, it is becoming increasingly necessary to ensure the safety of unmanned surface vehicles (USVs). In this context, a key task is to correct their paths to avoid obstacles. This paper proposes a reactive collision avoidance algorithm to ensure the safety of USVs against obstacles. A global map is represented using a Gaussian mixture model, formulated using the expectation–maximization algorithm. Motion primitives are used to predict collision events and modify the USV’s trajectory. In addition, a controller for the target vessel is designed. Mapping is performed to demonstrate that the USV can implement the necessary avoidance maneuvers to prevent collisions with obstacles. The proposed method is validated by conducting collision avoidance simulations and autonomous navigation field tests with a small-scale autonomous surface vehicle (ASV) platform. Results indicate that the ASV can successfully avoid obstacles while following its trajectory.

International interest in Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) is on the rise. This exploratory research presents insights of a sample of licensed deck officers (LDOs) regarding the potential future of the Collision Avoidance Regulations (COLREGs) with the implementation of MASS. At present, there is much discussion in the maritime industry on if and how the COLREGs will need to be amended to be able to be applied to MASS. Limited research is published from the key perspective of the LDO. Qualitative and quantitative methods are used, including a literature review and a multiple-choice survey. Data is analyzed via descriptive statistics, and commonalities within the results are investigated as well as years of experience with practicing the COLREGs. Results show that many barriers exist when applying the COLREGs to MASS, and minor amendments to certain terms and definitions are recommended. Moreover, the COLREGs should not be quantified, and MASS should be identifiable from other vessels. LDOs with more experience with practicing the COLREGs are found to be slightly more open to changing the rules versus LDOs with less experience. When compared to the results of the International Maritime Organization’s regulatory scoping exercise, the results of this study are found to be in congruence. This research provides valuable insights for the ongoing discussion of the future of MASS operation in the maritime industry.

The expected benefits of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) include increased safety, reduced costs and increased earning potential due to operational efficiencies and reduction in vessel manning. However, autonomous shipping enabled by such ships bears a greater potential than just replacing humans with machines. Rather, MASS can play a role in transforming supply and logistics chains. The value creation potential of these ships depends on the degree to which they disrupt logistics. Our aim here is to clarify how MASS create value and for whom, as well as how different actors in the maritime logistics ecosystem are able to monetize or otherwise benefit from the innovation. Based on interviews with experts in maritime logistics and autonomous technology, and a desktop study of the opinions of the leaders in maritime innovation, we analyse the different facets of value creation by MASS. We distinguish between the two key sources of value – onboard crew reduction and increased ship intelligence and their effects (cost reductions, earning potential, increased safety and system value) – and explicate for which actors in the ecosystem the value is created. We identify the key changes in the maritime logistics ecosystem, which concern the changing roles of technology providers, shipowners and operators, and we highlight the need for developing complementary infrastructure and activities in the ecosystem.

The presence of autonomous vehicles in the maritime domain is already a reality, even though being confined to very specific domains of operations (environmental monitoring, surveillance and defense, R&D) or segregated spaces (exclusive spaces for the operation of autonomous vehicles). Artificial Intelligence algorithms for navigation control applied in autonomous vessels are based on the adoption of rules that currently regulate navigation, namely the International Collision Regulation (ColReg), the maritime Buoyage System, and routing regulations. However, considering Jen Rasmussen's decision model, in many situations, the navigator makes decisions not only based on rules (Rule-Based) but based on perceptions that stem from his skills (Skill Based) or knowledge (Knowledge-Based). An example is the concept of safe speed or safe distance, defined in ColReg, but with a variable quantification depending on the circumstances. On the other hand, the navigator's perception of the concept of navigation safety varies significantly and usually goes beyond the ship domain. For instance, some may decide not complying a ColReg priority rule to facilitate another vessel's movement and prevent a decrease in the operation safety level. Safety perception is conceived holistically, that is, it is not restricted to the vessel, but to all those in the vicinity and the natural environment. Finally, it is important to understand the behaviour of navigators in the face of the existence or interaction with unmanned vessels, not only to understand how the decision process is affected but also to improve the AI algorithms applied in autonomous vehicles.To understand how the perceived status of the encountered vessels affects the navigator's decision, we conducted an experimental study to assess how the decisions made by the participant vary when interacting with unmanned vessels. Recognizing that trust in automation is a critical influential factor, we adopted existing framework models to evaluate the participants' perceptions of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), as classified by the International Maritime Organization.The adopted method comprises a combination of questionnaires and participation in six simulated scenarios. This mixed approach aimed to understand the familiarity with MASS; the need to change operational regulations; concerns, challenges, and opportunities from the implementation of MASS; trust in MASS; and the differences between the declared perception and decision-making when interacting with MASS.The study comprised three stages. firstly, a pilot study to appraise and validate the questionnaire, with 49 participants. Secondly, the online implementation of the questionnaire, with a desktop version of the six simulated scenarios, with 110 valid questionnaires, 73 students from the naval academy and 37 professional mariners. Each scenario presented an interaction situation with another vessel, referencing a clearly stated rule of the Collision Regulation. The target vessel could randomly assume one of three statuses: Manned vessel, Unmanned vessel and unidentified vessel. By varying the control mode of the target vessel in the same situation, we aimed to see if the perceived status of the vessel had any influence on the decision-making process. In the last stage of the study, the six desktop exercises of the scenarios were replaced by a simulator game of the same situation, with 33 participants. On the desktop exercise participants reported: Time for acting, change of heading, change of speed, and aimed final position. Reaction time, change of heading and speed were automatically logged on the simulator game. The questionnaire comprises four sections: Unmanned vessels and levels of automation, scenarios decisions, trust in automation and demographic data.The results suggest that despite having a reduced familiarity with autonomous ships, the participants have a very positive opinion. However, in the same situation, they react differently to conventional ships and autonomous ships. The way navigators react was analyzed through parameters such as reaction time, course and speed variation and the Closest Point of Approach between vessels. There is a greater discrepancy between those parameters in participants with less training, suggesting a need to address the issues of interaction with unmanned vessels during the course program. Results from the simulators provided more precise shreds of evidence, namely when interacting with unidentified vessels, pointing out the need to design solutions for clear identification of the target vessel.

Introduction: Technological developments in the maritime sector have led to innovations such as unmanned surface vessels (Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships/MASS). The emergence of MASS brings efficiency, safety, and new innovations to the world of shipping, but it also poses legal challenges, particularly regarding the application of international regulations that have traditionally governed manned vessels.Purposes of the Research: This study aims to analyze the application of legal provisions and identify liability mechanisms for MASS under international law, as well as compare practices across several countries.Methods of the Research: The methodology employed is normative legal research using a legislative, comparative legal, and conceptual approach, utilizing primary legal sources such as international conventions (UNCLOS, SOLAS, and IMO regulations) and relevant literature.Results of the Research: The results of the study indicate that most international legal instruments have not yet fully accommodated the characteristics and regulatory needs of autonomous ships, particularly in terms of the definition of legal subjects, the role of the captain, and accountability mechanisms in the event of an incident. This is because most of these international legal provisions are still based on the assumption that ships are controlled by humans. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom, Norway, and the United States, have begun to formulate specific regulations to govern MASS that can fill this gap. Therefore, accountability is needed, which indicates the need for updating and harmonizing international rules to address the challenges arising from technological developments in the maritime sector. Additionally, it is important to develop national implementation guidelines aligned with the principles of international maritime law to ensure maritime safety, marine environmental protection, and legal certainty.

PrefaceThis special Issue presents peer-reviewed papers presented the 3rd International Conference on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (ICMASS), held in Ulsan, R. O. Korea, 11 – 12 November 2020. The ICMASS is the conference which presents cutting edge works on autonomous ships to both academic and industry researchers. The first International Conference on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (ICMASS) was arranged in 2018 in Busan, Korea and in 2019 in Trondheim in Norway. Due to COVID-19 pandemic, the conference program this year is provided with online conference. ICMASS 2020 is organized by UIPA (Ulsan ICT Promotion Agency), KMOU (Korea Maritime and Ocean University) and KAUS (Korea Autonomous and Unmanned Ship Forum) and, and co-organized with the International Network for Autonomous Ships (INAS).List of ICMASS 2020 Editorial Board, ICMASS 2020 Steering Committee, ICMASS 2020 Program Committee, ICMASS 2020 Local Organizing Committee and images are available in this pdf.

The development and operation of the MASS (Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship) is being actively discussed for more efficient and safer maritime transportation solutions. The autonomous navigation technology has positive aspects such as the prevention of marine accidents, improvement of fuel efficiency of ships and cost reduction, and negative aspects such as job loss, task change, and security problems. It is expected that there will be new human element issues such as the situation awareness of remote operators, because the shore-based control will be conducted when fully autonomous ships are in operation. In this paper, we consider major human element issues that should be factored in the development and operation of MASS, and suggest a method of HRA (Human Reliability Analysis) for PIFs (Performance Influencing Factors) of the remote operators that are expected according to the shore-based control.

Nowadays traditional manned commercial sea-going vessels are facing several difficulties, including shipping accidents that are mainly caused by human errors and the shortage of seafarers with the associated increased manning cost. In 2021, the International Maritime Organisation Maritime Safety Committee (IMO MSC) had finished the Regulatory Scoping Exercise (RSE) regarding Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) at its 103rd session, taking its first step towards autonomous shipping that does not involve human vectors. This paper analyses the security issues that are potentially involved in fully autonomous ships (Degree Four of Autonomy) (DOA 4) of MASS operations and recommend measures to adjust and mitigate the issues. This paper reviews six conventional maritime security threats that could threaten a DOA 4 vessel, including piracy and armed robbery at sea, terrorism, smuggling and trafficking, stowaways, cyber security threat and hybrid security threat. The research methodology of this paper reviews different literature as the source of both quantitative data and qualitative evidence. This paper analyses the experience of the security incidents in other comparable sectors and systems in order to identify the characteristics and behaviour of the security threats. Then the information is analysed against the specific characteristics of MASS operations to consider whether the characteristics of MASS operations may become more vulnerable if exploited by perpetrators of security threats. Potential issues and scenarios of the security threats in the operations are also discussed. Risk assessments are applied to explore the risk level of the security threats in DOA 4 MASS. This paper demonstrates that the characteristics of DOA 4 MASS operations may still pose vulnerabilities that can be exploited by all the six security threats. The risk of terrorism, smuggling and trafficking, cyber security, and hybrid security threats are high in DOA 4 MASS operations, while the risk of piracy and armed robbery at sea and stowaways are medium. Both the aspects of cyber security, detection/monitoring equipment, reliability of vessel systems, security in Shore Control Centres (SCC) and security in ports contribute significantly to the security of DOA 4 MASS operations against these security threats. This paper recommends all the aspects mentioned in the above findings should be considered in the development of future instruments regarding DOA 4 MASS operations. The stakeholders involved in DOA 4 MASS operations should apply any possible cyber security and detection/monitoring measures even beyond the legal requirement. The security and personnel management of SCC should be ensured too. Finally, further research on the identified security threats on DOA 4 MASS operations is recommended once more practical data on the operations are available, further research on different DOA of MASS operations and different security threats are also recommended.

This article investigates the legal and regulatory challenges associated with the development of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) as well as the extent to which MASS also referred to as autonomous ships may proffer solutions to the problem of human error often associated with maritime accidents. There is no denying that ship mishaps have been linked to a human error within the maritime industry over the years. Hence, exploring solutions that would help reduce maritime mishaps while also saving costs is an eminent step going forward. In addition to the lack of explicit legal framework to regulate the development of MASS, the article demonstrates how the extent conventions and rules may pose legal barriers and regulatory challenges to the development of autonomous shipping. It recommends progressive interpretation of the extant laws as well as the need to adopt international legal framework in the form of a MASS code, new convention on autonomous shipping or the amendment of extent laws especially the Law of the Sea Convention and rules of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) in order to clarify states and stakeholders’ obligations in relation to autonomous shipping.

The introduction of the maritime autonomous surface ship (MASS) to the maritime industry will open up a new era and bring about a new paradigm shift in terms of cost efficiency, maritime accidents, and human resources. Various studies are currently being conducted to realize the MASS. Understanding the scope and direction of these studies will be of great help for future MASS research. In this study, the current development status of technologies for autonomous ships is identified, and considerations and directions of improvement are suggested for six major research fields that cover all technological issues of MASS. Firstly, the results of the regulatory scoping exercise (RSE) on the International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions to accept MASSs are identified; in particular, human elements are identified as vital issues to be considered for the design and operation of MASSs. Secondly, various studies on the decision-making system are identified, and the future direction is suggested. Thirdly, in terms of ship design and propulsion system, design changes for autonomous cargo ships are investigated, with their potential impacts to be considered. Fourthly, the communication system will need to be robust and supported by multiple systems to minimize potential risk with third-party infrastructures, and suitable protection of systems, networks, and data will be required as an integral part of the safety system for cybersecurity. Fifthly, issues of maintenance and repair are identified, with a maintenance strategy to be considered. Lastly, hazard analysis of the autonomous ship is explored, and system-theoretic process analysis (STPA) and the functional resonance analysis method (FRAM) are identified as the most representative new methods that can be used for hazard analysis of autonomous ships.

As described in the Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy’s Nuclear Energy R&D Roadmap, nuclear energy can play a significant role in supplying energy for a growing economy while reducing both our dependence on foreign energy supplies and emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. The industrial and transportation sectors are responsible for more than half of the greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S., and imported oil supplies 70% of the energy used in the transportation sector. It is therefore important to examine the various ways nuclear energy can facilitate a transition away from fossil fuels to secure environmentally sustainable production and use of energy in the transportation and manufacturing industry sectors. Imperative 3 of the Nuclear Energy R&D Roadmap, entitled “Enable a Transition Away from Fossil Fuels by Producing Process Heat for use in the Transportation and Industrial Sectors”, addresses this need. This document presents an Implementation Plan for R&D efforts related to this imperative. The expanded use of nuclear energy beyond the electrical grid will contribute significantly to overcoming the three inter-linked energy challenges facing U.S. industry: the rising and volatile prices for premium fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas, dependence on foreign sources for these fuels, and the risks of climate change resulting from carbon emissions. Nuclear energy could be used in the industrial and transportation sectors to: • Generate high temperature process heat and electricity to serve industrial needs including the production of chemical feedstocks for use in manufacturing premium fuels and fertilizer products, • Produce hydrogen for industrial processes and transportation fuels, and • Provide clean water for human consumption by desalination and promote wastewater treatment using low-grade nuclear heat as a useful additional benefit. Opening new avenues for nuclear energy will significantly enhance our nation’s energy security through more effective utilization of our country’s resources while simultaneously providing economic stability and growth (through predictable energy prices and high value jobs), in an environmentally sustainable and secure manner (through lower land and water use, and decreased byproduct emissions). The reduction in imported oil will also increase the retention of wealth within the U.S. economy while still supporting economic growth. Nuclear energy is the only non-fossil fuel that has been demonstrated to reliably supply energy for a growing industrial economy.

The use of autonomous ships in shipping industry is increasingly being analysed and occupies the maritime sector. In the maritime industry, the introduction of autonomous underwater crafts began first this trend, after which the development of autonomous surface ships has followed. Unmanned vessels include ships operated remotely by an operator on land and autonomous ships that are fully operated by the computer programmes and only in exceptional situations the ship’s crewmembers or other human resources may be involved. The commercial application of these facilities is becoming more and more certain and this topic is increasingly being discussed. This trend obviously poses a huge challenge to all maritime actors, as well as lawmakers at international and national level. Namely, although the current development of maritime law has effectively regulated most of new technologies, all these standards and regulations have been adapted for the use of the conventional manned ships. A number of questions concerning the possible change in international and national regulations regarding the implementation of autonomous ships have been raised. It is considered as a priority within the framework of IMO unification instruments and changes in the Maritime Code of the Republic of Croatia. This paper presents various legal aspects of the use of autonomous ships with the aim to define the autonomous ship and to examine how present international conventions and national regulations could adapt to provide the legal framework to the introduction of autonomous ships.

Following the continuous technological development and the potential autonomy in the shipping industry, Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships are not just a scenario but feasibility. In this context, the present study reviews the available academic literature on the specific field, including subjects extending from the technical and design requirements and the influencing factors on the operation of the autonomous ship to its possible impacts on the maritime industry. Moreover, the available literature shows the needs in the adaptation of the job requirements and qualifications and the corresponding reformation and creation of proper education and training programs, as well as probable business and operational policy and strategies. Finally, the employed methods in each study are presented. The results of the current paper show that there occurs the ground for further research, mainly in education, but also in the consequences that the autonomous ship will bring.