Assessment of Population Perception Impact on Value-Added Solid Waste Disposal in Developing Countries, a Case Study of Port Harcourt City, Nigeria

Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, causing the Earth’s surface temperature to rise. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Human activities are increasing greenhouse gas concentrations rapidly, which is causing global climate change. Global climate change is increasing environmental and public health problems. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it is necessary to identify where the emissions are coming from, develop a plan to reduce them, and then implement and monitor the plan to ensure that emissions are actually reduced. Anthropogenic global climate change has large and increasingly adverse economic effects. Cities emit the most greenhouse gas due to fossil fuel burning and power usage. The four major greenhouse gas emitters are energy, transportation, waste management, and urban land use sectors. Organizations should prepare action plans to lower their greenhouse gas emissions and stop the worst consequences of climate change. These action plans require companies and local authorities to submit their greenhouse gas emissions reports on a yearly basis. A greenhouse gas emissions management system includes several processes and tools created by organizations to understand, measure, monitor, report, and validate their greenhouse gas emissions. Two of the most widely adapted frameworks for greenhouse gases inventory reporting are ISO 14064 and the greenhouse gas protocol. This review paper aims to identify some of the key points of GHG inventory preparation and mitigation strategies.

Energy-related activities are a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A growing body of knowledge clearly depicts the links between human activities and climate change. Over the last century the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil and other human activities has released carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and other heat-trapping GHG emissions into the atmosphere and thus increased the concentration of atmospheric CO2 emissions. The main human activities that emit CO2 emissions are (1) the combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity, accounting for about 37% of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 31% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2013, (2) the combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and goods, accounting for about 31% of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 26% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2013, and (3) industrial processes such as the production and consumption of minerals and chemicals, accounting for about 15% of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 12% of total ...

Taking Stock of Strategies on Climate Change and the Way Forward: A Strategic Climate Change Framework for Australia

Major US electric utility climate pledges have the potential to collectively reduce power sector emissions by one-third

The Negative Bidirectional Interaction Between Climate Change and the Prevalence and Care of Liver Disease: A Joint BSG, BASL, EASL, and AASLD Commentary

Have you ever seen a mountain of materials for disposal atop a case cart following a surgical case and wondered, "Is all this waste necessary?" After thinking about this and then digging deeper, we have come to find that the U.S. health-care system produces a tremendous amount of waste—nearly 4 million tons (3.6 million metric tons) of solid waste per year according to a 2010 estimate—while also producing 8% to 10% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the U.S1,2. Health-care waste is expensive to properly dispose of, and our landfills are quickly overflowing. There is a need for increased attention to waste management in an effort to decrease the effect of health care on climate change. Waste Sources and Disposal Health-care waste is defined by the World Health Organization as "the waste generated by health-care establishments, research facilities, and laboratories. In addition, it includes the waste originating from 'minor' or 'scattered' sources—such as that produced in the course of health care undertaken in the home (dialysis, insulin injections, etc.)."3 This waste often is further broken down into general or nonhazardous waste, which accounts for 75% to 90% of health-care waste, and clinical or hazardous waste, which accounts for the remaining 10% to 25% of waste3. Hazardous waste is anything that poses a health risk, including potentially infectious materials, sharps, pharmaceuticals, and radioactive materials. Differentiating general waste from hazardous waste is important because the disposal of hazardous waste is far more energy-consuming and expensive. Hazardous waste is most commonly incinerated, a process that requires high energy input and produces substantial GHGs, estimated at 3 kg of carbon dioxide (CO2) for every 1 kg of hazardous waste4. Hazardous waste accounts for up to 86% of waste costs5. General waste from hospitals is disposed of in whatever fashion the local community facilitates, often in landfills. Waste in the Surgical Setting Of interest to surgeons, between 20% and 33% of hospital waste is attributed to operating rooms (ORs)6. Hazardous waste is generally disposed of in red bags, while general waste is disposed of in clear bags. The use of this bagging system is well intentioned but fails to appropriately separate waste; up to 90% of OR general waste is improperly designated as hazardous waste7. The role of sorting waste appropriately falls onto many parties as everyone in the OR has access to the waste containers and actively disposes of waste throughout a surgical case. Proper sorting of waste is crucial. In orthopaedics, operative supplies and instrumentation vary widely among the subspecialties, which, in turn, has led to differences in the both the type and quantity of produced waste. For example, Kooner et al. found that arthroplasty produced significantly (p < 0.05) more waste per case than all other subspecialties, but also generated the largest amount of recyclable waste by mass8. In contrast, upper-extremity procedures produced the least amount of OR waste per case, and the percentage of waste that was recyclable was lower than that for arthroplasty (23% versus 33%). Other factors also may influence the waste that is produced within the subspecialties, such as differences in the average number of procedures performed each day. Regardless of subspecialty, there is room for improvement of waste management in orthopaedic surgery. This improvement could lead to both cost savings and waste reduction. A Greater Role for Reusables? The use of instruments, personal protective equipment (PPE), drapes, and OR accessories that are reusable has varied in recent decades. Current practice in many medical centers involves a heavy reliance on disposable (single-use) equipment, both for ease of use and to lower infection risk. This reasoning is controversial, however, as even the choice to use disposable draping versus reusable draping is of questionable benefit in reducing the risk of infection9. At the same time, the decreased use of disposables has demonstrated cost savings and waste reduction2, both of which are appealing outcomes as our health-care systems move to be more environmentally and economically conscious. Given the increased use of PPE, most of which is disposable, during the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic and the resulting shortages, the need to find viable, reusable medical equipment is ever present. In implementing reusables, health-care systems may also be able to insulate themselves from future shortages. Recycling in the OR Recycling is a well-known concept; however, it is not optimally practiced. In total, it is estimated that plastic packaging comprises 25% of hospital waste in the U.S., generating 1 million tons (0.9 million metric tons) annually10. Plastics that are commonly used in health care are not economically viable for processing by the U.S. recycling industry11,12. This, in addition to the fear of contamination, adds difficulty to initiating the recycling of health-care waste with recycling vendors. However, the large quantities of plastics that are produced by hospitals have the potential to create a large, consistent feedstock of recyclable material for the growing plastics recycling industry13. Successful recycling practices also are dependent on the education of health-care workers who are in charge of sorting materials, hospital logistics to appropriately collect and store the materials, and hospital-vendor relations to ensure that the materials are transported accordingly to be reprocessed into a reusable material14. Current Regulations and Practices In the U.S., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) define hazardous medical waste by the material and its degree of contamination because treating all potentially contaminated items as hazardous waste is not practical or necessary15. Despite this, state policies vary greatly15. Although regulations are fragmented and lack systematic standards, there is rising interest in improving waste practices. Select health-care systems both within the U.S. and internationally have begun investing in climate-smart and sustainable initiatives, exemplified by Kaiser Permanente's target to become carbon net positive by 2025 and the U.K. National Health Service's goal of a 34% GHG emission reduction by 202016 (which has been achieved according to a recent report17). Additionally, individual organizations are uniting in an effort to reduce the medical field's impact on climate change. The Health Care Climate Challenge, a coalition representing 22,000 hospitals and health centers in 33 countries, calls to "reduce the amount of all waste generated, to reduce the toxicity of waste by making smarter purchasing decisions upstream, and by properly segregating and recycling waste."18 Future Directions Education is the first step in creating a more renewable system of health-care supplies and materials. Learning the nuances of sorting, storage, transportation, and the recovery processes of the varied waste systems is no easy task, but it is a vital step in creating a less-complex health-care waste system. A recent article assessing hand surgeries that are performed in the OR called for "using clear bags during surgical preparation and red bags right before the procedure to segregate operating room waste properly."19 Simple methods such as these can better the efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and ease of creating sustainable practices. Another potential strategy is to decrease the mix of materials that are used in hospitals so that those used are easily sorted and managed for recycling and created in large enough quantities to be viable for recycling programs. Product design needs to ensure not only functionality and safety but also reusability or recyclability. Staff training, logistical planning, and practice reevaluation by health-care systems are needed to better understand and improve practices. Open communication between waste collectors and hospitals is crucial in order to smoothly and efficiently create best practices. Although governmental legislation and large corporations are focusing first on the sustainability of consumer goods, the health-care industry is not exempt from initiatives to reduce the use of fossil fuel, GHG emissions, landfill overflow, incinerator pollution, and the litter that is plaguing our oceans and soil20. Next-generation materials for health-care products and packaging should be considered as the movement for more environmentally friendly practices and materials grows. Innovations in the plastics industry are working to scale up the use of post-consumer recycled plastic in medical device and packaging applications21. More stringent standards for these materials in medical use may be needed, but this should not hinder the need to transition to climate-smart products. A surgeon's focus has always been centered on patient health. As climate change progresses and the health of many is affected, the focus of the health-care community needs to incorporate the environmental consequences of patient-care decisions. The health threat of climate change is said to be the "greatest global health opportunity of the twenty-first century," indicating the potential for positive impact with improved waste practices16. As leaders in the OR, surgeons are called on to advocate for climate change mitigation through improved waste education and management. The health of our patients and planet depends on it.

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

Current and future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the management of municipal solid waste in the eThekwini Municipality – South Africa

Reducing the climate impact of residual waste treatment: A German case study on carbon management strategies.

Uniting the Global Gastroenterology Community to Meet the Challenge of Climate Change and Non-Recyclable Waste

Modelling of greenhouse gas emissions from municipal solid waste disposal in Africa

Climate change is a complex and contentious public issue, but the risk-management options available to us are straightforward and have well-characterized strengths and weaknesses.

For many developing countries, the land use sector, particularly agriculture and forestry, represents a large proportion of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, making this sector a priority for GHG mitigation activities. Previous global surveys (e.g., IPCC 2000) as well as the most recent IPCC assessment report clearly indicate that the greatest technical potential for carbon sequestration and reductions of non-CO2 GHG emissions from the land use sector is in developing countries. Estimates that consider economic feasibility suggest that agriculture and forestry together provide among the greatest opportunities for short-term and low-cost mitigation measures across all sectors of the global economy1 (IPCC 2007). In addition, it is widely recognized that the ecosystem changes entailed by most mitigation practices, i.e., building soil organic matter, reducing losses and tightening nutrient cycles, more efficient production systems and preserving native vegetation, are well aligned with goals of increasing food security and rural development as well as buffering land use systems against climate change (Lal 2004). Hence, there is growing interest in jump-starting the capacity for broad-based engagement in agriculturally-based GHG mitigation projects in developing countries.

ABSTRACTIncreasing population in many countries consumed natural resources and generates secondary product. These secondary products may be in the form of pollutants and liberated in the atmosphere. In this paper, an analysis was performed for green house gas (GHG) emission from municipal solid waste disposal for Faridabad city, India. Land filling and waste-to-energy methods were considered for GHG emission and analysis was performed based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) model. GHG emission and linear pinch analysis (LPA) were performed based on the 50% collection efficiency in Faridabad city over a period of 10 years (2015–2025). Two scenarios of emission forecasting, such as land filling and waste to energy (incineration), were incorporated in this study. Hybrid analysis was presented for emission forecasting and emission reduction to develop a sustainable municipal solid waste management system for Faridabad. A target of 20% and 30% reduction in GHG emission was formulated with the help of LPA. The result shows that GHG in Faridabad city has been continuously changed from 2015 to 2025.The result represented here could be a decision support matrix for municipalities to develop integrated municipal solid waste management system for upcoming smart cities in India. Moreover, another novelty of this study reflects that cities having approximate same population, waste characteristics, and waste management technology could adopt this model for saving of GHG inventory and target-based reduction.

Climate change presents a fundamental challenge to the way industries use energy and resources. Qatargas, the world's largest LNG producer is improving operational performance and energy efficiency to reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions through an effective, well-structured and maturing GHG management strategy. This approach is aligned with the State of Qatar's position on climate change. Qatargas' strategy has three phases. Phase 1 involved understanding the GHG issue, preparing an action plan, and focusing on internal capacity building through analysis of GHG policies, projects and markets. It also analyzed the potential impact of climate change on Qatargas' operations, and reviewed potential opportunities to reduce GHG emissions and participate in the global carbon market. Phase 2 of the GHG strategy focuses on:Preparing a comprehensive GHG emissions inventory that includes emission sources from various business divisions, development of GHG management procedures and plans, and corporate GHG KPIs;Benchmarking GHG efficiency per tonne of LNG produced; andComparing company GHG performance relative to peer companies. Qatargas' verified emissions inventory portfolio is providing data and trends, which is assisting in the understanding of key emission sources and provides a platform to progress Phase 3 of the GHG strategy. Phase 3 focuses on carbon reduction opportunities and abatement techniques via sustainability assessments and engineering studies; and will also include a Life Cycle Assessment for GHG emissions from Qatargas' operations. These are in addition to the ongoing emissions reduction efforts such as the Flare Management Team initiative and the upcoming Jetty Boil-off Gas Recovery (JBOG) project. Introduction Anthropogenic related climate change effects are now generally accepted by the global scientific community, and although uncertainties persist, many governments and industry sectors around the world are implementing programs to address climate change issues. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007 report concluded that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal" and that it is "very likely that emissions from human activities have caused most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century." IPPC also identified many potentially devastating impacts resulting from climate change, including changes in Arctic temperatures and ice, ocean salinity, wind patterns, droughts, precipitation patterns, frequency of heat waves and intensity of tropical cyclones. These may not only have direct physical effects but create socio/economic-political instability and security issues for a wide range of directly and indirectly affected areas of the world.