Assessing Urban Food Security Challenges in Gondar, Ethiopia: A Systematic Study on Household Vulnerability and Policy Implications.

Background : Food insecurity among poor urban households in low income settings is a major public health concern. This study aimed to assess the magnitude of food insecurity and associated factors among households in Areka town, Southern Ethiopia. Methods: A community based cross-sectional survey was conducted among a total random sample of 309 urban households in Areka town, Southern Ethiopia, from March to April, 2015. Data was gathered using an interviewer administered and pre-tested structured questionnaire. The data was entered into Epi Info version 3.5.3 and exported to SPSS version 20.0 for analysis. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to assess the association between independent and outcome variable. Multivariable analysis was used to identify factors associated with household food insecurity after controlling possible confounders and statistical significance set at p- value < 0.05. Result: The magnitude of household food insecurity was 69.6 % (95% CI = 64.1, 75.2). Household food insecurity severity status was categorized as mild for34.3%, (95% CI = (29.4, 39.8)], moderate for31.7%, (95% CI = (26.1, 37.0)], and severe for 3.6%, (95% CI = (1.9, 5.8)] households respectively. Being a poor household [(AOR = 3.13, 95% CI = ( 1.42, 6.91)], lack of formal education among household heads [(AOR = 4.70, 95% CI = (1.82, 12.12) ] , households whose monthly food expenditure was <500 ETB [ (AOR =6.9 , 95% CI =1.45, 32.9)] and between 500- 1500 ETB [ (AOR = 2.70, 95% CI =1.48, 4.91)] , and household head’s age ≥ 50 years [(AOR = 2.11, 95% CI = (1.12, 3.95)] were significantly associated with urban household food insecurity. Conclusion: The prevalence of urban household food insecurity was high in the study setting. The older age group and lack of formal education by head of the household, household poverty and less monthly household expenditure for food consumption was factors that significantly contributed to urban food insecurity. Therefore, an integrated feasible urban food security interventions should be emphasized at all levels by all relevant stakeholders targeting the urban poor households to ensure urban household food security. Keywords : Areka town, Southern Ethiopia, Household Food insecurity. DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/88-02 Publication date: April 30 th 2021

Food Insecurity, Food Insecurity Determinants and Coping Strategies in the Urban Space – the Experience of Low Income Households of Msunduza in Mbabane

Urban food security has long been viewed as secondary to rural food security in Africa, and with the migration of large numbers of individuals from rural to urban settings, it has become crucial to place more focus on urban food security. More so, in Southern African peri-urban areas, where high unemployment rates amongst the youth exist. Often, the interventions toward reducing food insecurity in urban settings are taken from those previously designed for application in the rural context. In this study, we aimed to measure the status of food security and identify the factors driving and constraining household food security amongst peri-urban households in Tembisa, South Africa, with the purpose of gaining an in depth understanding of the drivers of urban food insecurity within peri-urban communities. In order to accomplish this, FANTA's Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), which measures levels of food security and the Household Dietary Diversity Scale (HDDS), which measures the level of nutritional intake of households was applied. Food prices of the formal and informal markets were monitored over a period of 6 months. A significant decline in household food access over a 4-year period (2013–2016) was observed in addition to low-quality diets. The most commonly used coping methods during periods of low income included borrowing either money or food from friends and neighbors, this was done in conjunction with various other coping strategies. Much of the declining food access was attributed to the inflation of food prices, the lack of employment, lack of formal employment and a high number of household members to breadwinner ratios. High reliance solely on financial capital remains a limitation to the livelihood of urban households. Informal markets are an imperative driver of food security in these peri-urban communities and provide improved food price stability, temporal, and geographical food access through less volatile food pricing, compared to formal markets. Furthermore, government initiatives such as social grants and school feeding schemes have proven to be critical in reducing the vulnerability to food insecurity of most households.

Access to food, rather than a shortage of food availability, is the central problem for urban household food security. Blantyre in Malawi presents a useful case study for demonstrating the importance of linking gender and urban food security. Rates of urban food insecurity are less severe than in other cities surveyed by AFSUN. Yet female-centred households were twice as likely to be severely food insecure as nuclear households. This paper offers some explanations for the survey findings by drawing on qualitative research to understand the gendered geographies of food access in Blantyre. The first point is that gender shapes mobility, which in turn shapes a household’s ability to increase its food security by procuring food from the most affordable sources, particularly peri-urban markets. The second point is that gender shapes a household’s ability to produce its own food, a popular livelihood strategy in Blantyre that often mitigates the effects of low incomes on household food security. The third point is that gender influences a person’s potential income, which shapes the household’s economic access to food. These three points demonstrate the multi-dimensional relationship between gender and urban food security.

This research analyzed urban household food security and coping mechanisms in response to increasing food prices in Osun State, Nigeria, with an emphasis on the cities of Osogbo, Ile-Ife, and Ilesa. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to survey 240 households, with data analyzed using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), multinomial logistic regression, and the Coping Strategy Index (CSI). Findings indicated that merely 17.9% of households achieved food security, whereas 39.6% and 16.3% experienced moderate and severe food insecurity, respectively. Household income, education, household size, access to credit, and the share of food expenditure significantly influenced food security. Households predominantly employed mild coping strategies, including the consumption of less expensive foods and the reduction of meal portions, whereas severe strategies were primarily observed among those experiencing significant food insecurity. Recommended policies encompass urban food support initiatives, the promotion of urban agriculture, social protection programs, access to microcredit, and nutrition education. The research underscores the necessity for cohesive strategies to enhance urban food accessibility and resilience, thereby supporting Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger.

Zimbabwe is becoming increasingly urbanized, and with this accelerating process comes a host of socio-economic challenges. Rapid urbanization process has resulted in increase urban food insecurity and malnutrition, especially on the side of tandem increase in urban poverty. Urban poverty and food shortage are taking root in Zimbabwe, as a result increased food production and access becomes critical to achieving major nutritional improvement and addressing food insecurity. In the face of urban food shortages, the present paradigm of rural food production cannot meet the challenges of the new millennium. It is hardly surprising that increasing umbers of urbanites are looking to grow their own food, if only to supplement their family food needs. Food is one of the basic needs and urban agriculture, both legal and illegal, has grown as a consequence of the difficult economic climate. Many urban households lack adequate amounts of foods that are rich in the nutrients needed for health and a productive life. It is against this background of increasing urban poverty that this discussion puts forward some suggestions for promoting urban agriculture. Urban agriculture has diverse economic, social and ecological functions and can be valued as one of the agricultural sectors having enormous potential to contribute to food security in Zimbabwe. In this discussion the role of urban agriculture in improving nutrition and food security is highlighted. Urban areas are becoming more 'modern' in their patterns of consumption than in their patterns of production, and there is a danger that the urban poor will become more and more marginalized while, at the other extreme, a small increasingly wealthy elite develops. The demand for food due to increased urbanization is predicted to grow faster than production resulting in a growing food deficit and insecurity in urban areas. Strategies which foster gender equality in urban food production will impact positively on food production, which may translate into expanded food production base to meet the needs of the growing urban dwellers, who are failing to make ends meet. This means participation of women in urban agriculture on the understanding that they are custodians of food production in many urban communities is recommended. However, challenges associated with urban agriculture need to be addressed to avoid land degradation and pollution in urban areas. Therefore, urban agriculture should be considered as a normal component of agriculture system and urban development, which has the capacity to improve nutrition and food security, as it lends itself to the majority of the urban poor. Greater and more sustained food production from urban agriculture will increase the potential access of the urban household to an adequate diet. It is envisaged that urban agriculture will be the new approach to satisfying urban food demands, however best provided incentives to urban farmers are credited by formulating policy fair to urban food producers. In the face of this bleak situation, major efforts are required to promote urban agriculture in addressing the nutritional needs and the perpetual food insecurity challenges in urban areas of Zimbabwe. On the other hand, given the economic, social and ecological advantages of urban farming it is arguably deserves even greater attention than before.

Access to food, rather than a shortage of food availability, is the central problem for urban household food security. Blantyre presents a useful case study for demonstrating the importance of linking gender and urban food security. Rates of urban food insecurity are less severe than in other cities surveyed by AFSUN. Yet, female-centred households were twice as likely to be severely food insecure as nuclear households. This paper offers some explanations for the survey findings by drawing on qualitative research to understand the gendered geographies of food access in Blantyre. The first point is that gender shapes mobility, which in turn shapes a household’s ability to increase its food security by procuring food from the most affordable sources, particularly peri-urban markets. The second point is that gender shapes a household’s ability to produce its own food, a popular livelihood strategy in Blantyre that often mitigates the effects of low incomes on household food security. The third point is that gender influences a person’s potential income, which shapes the household’s economic access to food. These three points demonstrate the multi-dimensional relationship between gender and urban food security.

It is estimated that 25% of Zimbabwe’s population lives in urban areas (CSO, 2002), 70% below the poverty line, and a million in the city of Gweru. The worsening macroeconomic situation in 2008 resulted in urban food insecurity. Households adopted different survival strategies, including the intensification of urban agriculture. In an effort to assess the extent to which urban household food insecurity is mitigated by UA activities, a comparative analysis between households practicing and not practicing UA was done in Gweru in 2009. Household size as well as household head sex, age and employment status were found to affect household UA practice. Results indicated that UA practicing households were food-secure than non-practicing households. Household size, UA participation, household income, household head sex, maize meal price affected household food expenditure. Household head sex, UA participation, household head age and informal activities carried out by household members significantly affected urban household food security. The study concluded that there are synergies that exist between UA and urban household food security. Key words: Urban agriculture, household food security, Gweru.

FOOD FOR THE CITIES: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Urbanisation is occurring on a massive scale globally and even more so in the less developed regions of the Global South including sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Like other developing regions of the world, urbanisation in SSA is not occurring alongside a corresponding growth in urban economies. Resultantly, it is taking place in tandem with the rising scourge of urban poverty, including food insecurity. While urban food insecurity is a clear challenge in SSA, the challenge has however not been met with equal vigour in policy making and implementation circles and even in academia. Problematically, the urban food security literature often focuses on one element of the food system without giving due attention to other components of the system. Resultantly, broader systemic failures and the dynamics related to the different actors across the system-elements are missed. There has thus been recent calls to embrace urban governance in studying urban food systems, which this study does. The thesis examines the urban food system in Bulawayo (in Zimbabwe) with specific reference to urban governance and household food security to understand sociologically the complex multi-dimensional processes, structures, systems, and practices underpinning the urban food system. As a result of the complex nature of food systems, an eclectic analytical framework is employed encompassing Obeng Odoom’s DED framework, Clapp and Fuchs’ framework of power, Gaventa’s power cube and theories of everyday life derived from de Certeau and Lefebvre. Methodologically, the study is informed by a Critical Realism paradigm which accommodates the convergent mixed methods research design employed. The research strategy employed was that of a survey and case study. Key findings reveal that the Bulawayo food system, from production to consumption, is complex and is nested within broader national and international food systems. Although without a direct and explicit mandate on food security, the local authority is at the centre of urban governance processes as it employs a plethora of strategies to influence the nature of the food system. However, the study reveals that the food system is as much a construction from below through the agential activities of the urban poor.

BackgroundHigh food prices have emerged as a major global challenge, especially for poor and urban households in low-income countries such as Ethiopia. However, there is little empirical evidence on urban food security and how people living in urban areas are coping with sustained high food prices. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the food insecurity situation in urban Ethiopia -a country experiencing sustained high food prices, high rates of urban poverty, and a growing urban population.MethodsA community based cross-sectional study was conducted from January 18 to February 14, 2012. A total of 550 households were selected from three sub-cities of Addis Ababa using three-stage sampling technique. Data were collected using questionnaire based interview with household heads. Items in the questionnaire include, among others, basic socioeconomic variables, dietary diversity and coping strategies. Food security status of households was assessed by a Household Food Insecurity Access Score. Data analysis was done using SPSS software and both univariate and bivariate analysis were done.ResultsThe study found that 75% of households were food insecure and 23% were in a state of hunger. Households with higher food insecurity scores tend to have lower dietary diversity and are less likely to consume high quality diets. Reduction in meal size and shifting to poor quality/less expensive/food types were among the common coping strategies to high food price used by households. Household incomes, occupational and educational status of household heads were significant determinants of food security.ConclusionFood insecurity in Ethiopia is not only a rural problem. Urban food insecurity is a growing concern due to the toxic combination of high rates of urban poverty, high dependency of urban households on food supplied by the market, and fluctuating food prices. Household food insecurity was particularly high among low income households and those headed by uneducated, daily wagers and government employed household heads. Therefore, policy makers should work on stabilization of the food market and creating opportunities that could improve the livelihood and purchasing power of urban households.

ABSTRACTInternational comparison of development indicators is a perennial challenge in global development studies. The challenge is especially difficult when measuring urban household food security using experience-based metrics that are influenced by countless contextual factors. This article presents a gender-based analysis of household food security surveys conducted in Nanjing, China and Maputo, Mozambique. The analysis demonstrates the value of a gender lens for understanding the intersecting household characteristics associated with urban food insecurity. While Maputo had much higher food insecurity overall, our analysis leads to nuanced insights into shared and divergent connections between gender inequality and food insecurity in both cities.

PurposeThe study attempted to assess the food security status of urban agriculture households in Ghana and India. Also, the extent of urban agriculture participation and its effect on food security in Ghana and India were examined.Design/methodology/approachA total of 650 urban agriculture farmers were interviewed for this study in Ghana and India. Food security status of urban households was assessed by the use of the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, whereas the determinants of the extent of urban agriculture and its effect on food security were analysed by the use of the heteroskedastic linear regression and the Seemingly Unrelated Regression models, respectively.FindingsFrom the study on average, households in Ghana were mildly food insecure, but that of India was moderately food insecure. The results further revealed that various demographic, economic, institutional and health and nutrition factors differently influenced urban food security and urban agriculture. Also, the extent of urban agriculture participation positively influenced food security.Originality/valueSeveral studies in Asia (India) and Africa (Ghana) on urban food security have been geographically limited to New Delhi, Mumbai and Greater Accra, with few studies in the Middle Belt of Ghana, and Bihar in India. Besides, there is a limited, rigorous, empirical study on the effect of the extent of UA on food security in Asia (India) and Africa (Ghana) individually and together. Moreover, we extend the frontiers of the methodological approach by applying the Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) model to understand if the factors that affect food-security accessibility based on two food security accessibility tools are correlated.

.Urban food security is a significant development challenge in sub‐Saharan Africa. However, the field is currently under ‐researched and under‐theorized. Urban food insecurity, where it is considered, has been viewed through a development studies lens that views food insecurity as a household‐scale problem. There has been significant focus on food deserts in developed countries as one way of engaging with such insecurity. The food deserts research views food insecurity through a social exclusion and food justice lens. This article introduces the food desert concept to provide a conceptual tool to begin to understand the spatial determinants of urban food insecurity, which are not well captured by the existing framings of food security in the region. Using data from a 2008 household food security survey conducted in Cape Town, the paper highlights gaps in the food deserts approach, most significantly its neglect of non‐market sources of food and of household decision‐making processes. The paper therefore concludes by suggesting a new approach which takes the household's assets, abilities and decision‐making as the starting point and overlays this with the market and non‐market foodscapes accessed by these households.

This study examines urban household food security through the simultaneous use of two quantitative measures. A sample of 445 household data was analyzed. Using principal component analysis, the urbanicity index categorizes households by level of urbanization. About 39% of households had diverse diets (DD), and 75% spent above the required food expenditure plan (FEXP). The Food insecure (FIS) was in low urban category (LUC) on both measures, while the food secure ones were in middle urban category (MUC). Multinomial logit regression analysis shows that income and urbanicity index influenced the probability of a household being in any of the food security groups.