Assessing the Energy Expenditure of Elite Female Soccer Players

EPOC

Purpose: The aim of the present study was to identify the contribution of nutrition, physical activity (PA), and total energy intake and expenditure on body weight and composition in adolescents. Methods: Body composition, PA, and dietary intakes from 904 Greek adolescents (446 boys and 458 girls; Age: 14.6 ± 1.5 yrs), were evaluated. All participants were assigned into three groups according to their age-sex adjusted Fat Mass Index: (A) Normal weight (N; N = 503), (B) Overweight (OW; N = 253), and (C) Obese (O; N = 148). Results: Significant differences were found for body weight and composition, basal metabolic rate (BMR) expressed per kg of body mass (normal weight children exhibited the highest values), physical-total energy expenditure, and energy balances between the groups (η2: 0.138 to 0.657; p < .05). In contrast, no differences were found for macronutrients’ and total energy intakes, food consumption and quality (η2: 0.002 to 0.099; p > .05) between the three examined groups. Strong, negative correlations were observed between body weight, body fat percentage, PA, and total energy expenditure (r: −0.311 to −0.810; p < .001). Lower, negative correlations were found between body weight, body fat percentage, and macronutrients’ daily intakes (r:-0.235 to −0.432; p < .05). BMR and total energy expenditure had strong, negative relative strengths for the determination of body weight and fat percentage. Conclusions: In conclusion, it seems that BMR, PA, and total daily energy expenditure expressed per body weight and not the nutritional and total energy intakes, were the primary determinant parameters of body composition and weight in adolescents.

To review factors contributing to variation in total daily energy expenditure and its primary components: (1) resting metabolic rate; (2) diet-induced thermogenesis; and (3) activity thermogenesis, including exercise energy expenditure and nonexercise activity. For each component, the expected magnitude of intra-individual variability is also considered. We also reviewed studies that quantified the variability in 24 h energy expenditure. In humans, the coefficient of variation in the components of total daily energy expenditure is around 5-8% for resting metabolic rate, 1-2% for exercise energy expenditure, and around 20% for diet-induced thermogenesis. The coefficient of variance for 24 h energy expenditure measured using a room calorimeter for resting metabolic rate is around 5-10%. Thus, these measures are all rather reproducible. Total daily energy expenditure varies several-fold in humans, not due to variation in resting metabolic rate, diet-induced thermogenesis, or exercise thermogenesis, but rather, due to variations in nonexercise activity. A variety of factors impact nonexercise activity, including occupation, environment, education, genetics, age, gender, and body composition, but little is known about the magnitude of effect. Resting metabolic rate, diet-induced thermogenesis, exercise energy expenditure, and 24 h energy expenditure are highly reproducible. Coefficient of variation is smallest for exercise energy expenditure, followed by resting metabolic rate, 24 h energy expenditure, and diet-induced thermogenesis. There is considerable variability in total daily energy expenditure, largely due to variations in nonexercise activity. Although the factors that impact upon nonexercise activity are understood, their contribution to variation in total daily energy expenditure is unclear.

The most important element of a well-balanced diet is a proper energetic value. Energy deficiencies are often observed in athletes, especially women. Energy deficiencies can lead to low energy availability which can cause serious health problems and affect exercise capacities. There is, therefore, a risk of health complications and reduced physical performance among female soccer players. The aim of this study was to check the frequency of low energy availability appearance in a group of women training soccer, which could results in negative health effects due to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). Thirty-one professional female soccer players practicing on different league levels (Extra-league, I league, II league) participated in the study. The participants had their height and body mass measured. To assess the Energy Intake the method of 3-day dietary food recording was used. Total Energy Expenditure (TEE) and Exercise Energy Expenditure (EEE) was measured by means of an Armband SenseWear Pro3 device. The content of fat free mass was assessed with Akern BIA 101 Anniversary Sport Edition device. The body mass median of participants was 58 kg. The average height was 166±5 cm, and the average BMI was 21.4±2 kg/m2. TEE was 2703±392 kcal/day, while EEE was 515 kcal (203-597 kcal). Energy intake was 1548±452 kcal/day. Energy availability was 25±11 kcal/kg fat free mass/day. Twenty of the study participants had low energy availability. The percentage of EEE in TEE was 17.93±3.14%. Low energy availability was demonstrated in the vast majority of studied group, which may lead to negative health consequences or reduction of exercise capacity.

The obesity epidemic is thought widely to result from sustained high food intake combined with limited physical activity, which is further exacerbated by our maladaptation to these conditions. According to geneticist James Neel’s “Thrifty Gene Hypothesis,” the human genome evolved “thrifty genes” via natural selection to help individuals fatten more quickly during periods of feasting and survive better during times of famine or when exposed to predators (2,6). Although the thrifty genotype conferred a survival advantage to our hunter-gatherer ancestors, these genes are detrimental in our modern society where food is abundant perpetually and there are fewer demands for physical activity. This evolutionary hypothesis is endorsed widely as a plausible explanation for the high prevalence of obesity and Type 2 diabetes in modern society. In this issue of the Journal, Pontzer (3) proposes a similar evolutionary hypothesis that natural selection has shaped our physiology to conserve energy. He begins by stating that scientists typically assume energy expenditure to be additive (factorial); total daily energy expenditure is the sum of resting metabolic rate (energy necessary for maintenance and repair), the thermic effect of feeding (energy needed to digest, absorb, and store the ingested food), and the energy cost of structured and spontaneous physical activity. According to the additive model, an increase in physical activity always increases energy expenditure. In contrast to the additive model, Pontzer postulates that daily total energy expenditure is rather stable, despite rather large changes in physical activity. Invoking evolutionary principles, Pontzer proposes a “constrained energy expenditure” model, where energy balance is regulated homeostatically. In Pontzer’s model, total daily energy expenditure (adjusted for body weight) does not increase in proportion to physical activity but instead is constrained within a rather surprising narrow range that favors evolutionary survival. In support of this model, Pontzer presents data from both humans and many animal species showing that total daily energy expenditure is not influenced much by physical activity. Pontzer then provides ecological reasons why high levels of physical activity do not alter energy balance as much as expected, thus explaining why physical activity often has little impact on weight loss strategies. Although it is known that extra calories burned through exercise often do not translate into weight loss, the lack of exercise efficacy — those “missing calories” — has been attributed to compensation through increased food intake. However, Pontzer argues that the missing calories can be explained by a decrease in nonactivity energy expenditure, particularly resting energy expenditure, rather than an increase in food intake. In support of this constrained energy expenditure model, Pontzer cites evidence of no difference in energy expenditure between wild and captive primates. He also compares populations in different settings in which they have high food availability with low physical activity (Westernized societies) versus high physical activity with limited food availability, such as in the Hadza, a modern-day hunter-gatherer population in Africa. However, there are compelling data from humans showing that energy intake is indeed increased in response to exercise (e.g., (1)). Unfortunately, the evidence presented by Pontzer does not include data on energy balance, and it is possible that these constraints on energy expenditure only operate under certain conditions of ill-favored negative energy balance. Another possibility is that energy expenditure does not increase with structured physical activity because of decreases in spontaneous physical activity (e.g., fidgeting) or reductions in the energy cost of physical activity (e.g., improved muscle efficiency) rather than from reductions in resting metabolic rate. Indeed, spontaneous physical activity can account for a large amount of caloric expenditure even in sedentary conditions and may represent a buffer against changes in structured physical activity (5). Moreover, as Pontzer admits, athletes and subsistence farmers present a clear challenge to his model because they exceed the proposed limits on energy expenditure, even after correcting for body size (3). And even in the case of the Hadza who have comparable energy expenditure to Westerners once adjusted for fat-free mass, the Hadza expend more energy in physical activity and are leaner than their Western counterparts (4). Therefore, despite a possible upper limit on energy expenditure, physical activity can reduce adiposity. Despite some limitations with his model, Pontzer makes an important contribution to show convincingly that increases in physical activity often do not translate into increases in total energy expenditure. Moreover, he demonstrates that models of energy expenditure and physical activity must accommodate both evolutionary and ecologic pressures in the context of maintaining energy balance. Eric Ravussin Courtney M. Peterson Skeletal Muscle Physiology Lab Pennington Biomedical Research Center Baton Rouge, LA C. Peterson is supported in part by 1 U54 GM104940 from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, which funds the Louisiana Clinical and Translational Science Center. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Total daily energy expenditure among middle-aged men and women: the OPEN Study

To establish the criterion-assessed energy and fluid requirements of female netball players, 13 adult players from a senior Netball Super League squad were assessed over 14 days in a cross-sectional design, representing a two- and one-match microcycle, respectively. Total energy expenditure (TEE) and water turnover (WT) were measured by doubly labeled water. Resting and activity energy expenditure were measured by indirect calorimetry and Actiheart, respectively. Mean 14-day TEE was 13.46±1.20MJday-1 (95% CI, 12.63-14.39MJday-1). Resting energy expenditure was 6.53±0.60MJday-1 (95% CI, 6.17-6.89MJday-1). Physical activity level was 2.07±0.19 arbitrary units (AU) (95% CI, 1.95-2.18 AU). Mean WT was 4.1±0.9Lday-1 (95% CI, 3.6-4.7Lday-1). Match days led to significantly greater TEE than training (+2.85±0.70MJday-1; 95% CI, +1.00- +4.70MJday-1; p=0.002) and rest (+4.85±0.70MJday-1; 95% CI, +3.13-+6.56MJday-1; p<0.001) days. Matches led to significantly greater energy expenditure (+1.85±1.27MJ; 95% CI, +0.95-+2.76MJday-1; p=0.001) than court-based training sessions. There was no significant difference in TEE (+0.03±0.35MJday-1; 95% CI, -0.74-+0.80MJday-1; p=0.936) across weeks. Calibrated Actiheart 5 monitors underestimated TEE (-1.92±1.21MJday-1). Energy and fluid turnover were greatest on match days, followed by training and rest days, with no difference across weeks. This study provides criterion-assessed energy and fluid requirements to inform dietary guidance for female netball players.

This study aimed to examine the shape of the relationship between physical activity (PA) and total energy expenditure (TEE) and to explore the role of energy balance status (negative, stable, positive) in influencing this association. Cross-sectional. Participants were 584 older adults (50-74 yr) participating in the Interactive Diet and Activity Tracking in AARP study. TEE was assessed by doubly labeled water and PA by accelerometer. The relationship between PA and TEE was assessed visually and using nonlinear methods (restricted cubic splines). Percent weight change (>3%) over a 6-month period was used as a proxy measurement of energy balance status. TEE generally increased with increasing deciles of PA averaging 2354 (SD, 351) kcal·d-1 in the bottom decile to 2693 (SD, 480) kcal·d-1 in the top decile. Cubic spline models showed an approximate linear association between PA and TEE (linear relation, P < 0.0001; curvature, P = 0.920). Results were similar in subgroup analyses for individuals classified as stable or positive energy balance. For those in negative energy balance, TEE was generally flat with increasing deciles of PA averaging 2428 (SD, 285) kcal·d-1 in the bottom decile to 2372 (SD, 560) kcal·d-1 in the top decile. Energy balance status seems to play an important role in the relationship between PA and TEE. When in a positive energy balance, the relationship between TEE and PA was consistent with an additive model; however, when energy balance was negative, TEE seems to be consistent with a constrained model. These findings support PA for weight gain prevention by increasing TEE; however, the effect of PA on TEE during periods of weight loss may be limited. An adequately powered, prospective study is warranted to confirm these exploratory findings.

Few studies have examined the oxygen consumption and energy expenditure of weight training performed at different exercise intensities, but with similar exercise volumes, in women. PURPOSE: Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the total oxygen consumption (exercise + recovery between sets) and energy expenditure of multi-set, circuit weight training at different intensities (but same volume) in women. METHODS: Oxygen consumption (VO2, ml/min) was measured at rest, during weight training (WT), and during one-minute recovery periods between WT sets with a portable oxygen collection device (COSMEDTM K4b2) in nine women (age = 20.5 +/− .8 yr). Subjects performed at least three successive sets (separated by 1 min rest) of a seated chest press, supine leg press and a seated lat pull down at two intensities (70% and 85%) of maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) on two nonconsecutive days. The intensity and exercise sequence of the WT sessions was randomized and the sessions were separated by at least 48 hours. Total exercise volume, i.e., total pounds lifted (lbs x repetitions), was determined and held constant across intensities of WT so that only the intensity of work varied. Total exercise VO2 was determined as the oxygen consumption of all WT sets and all one-minute rest periods between sets. Net exercise VO2 (total exercise VO2 - rest VO2) and exercise energy expenditure (total exercise VO2 x 5 kcal/L O2) were calculated. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in the net exercise VO2 (7.5 +/− 2.1 vs. 8.0+/− 1.4L/min, P = .12) or energy expenditure (37.3 +/− 10.7 vs. 40.4+/− 7.4 kcal, P = .12) of WT at 70% versus 85% MVC. CONCLUSIONS: In women, total exercise oxygen consumption and energy expenditure appear to be similar across different intensities of WT when the total exercise volume (pounds lifted) is the same across WT intensities.

Total and activity-induced energy expenditure measured during a year in children with inflammatory bowel disease in clinical remission remain lower than in healthy controls.

To quantify resting and total energy expenditure in patients who have suffered severe trauma and sepsis. Prospective, unblinded, observational, nonrandomized study. Critical care unit of a Level I adult trauma center. Immediate posttrauma patients or trauma patients exhibiting signs of sepsis with multiple organ dysfunction. An indirect calorimeter was used to measure energy expenditure at rest (resting energy expenditure) at 0700 and 1900 hrs. The energy expenditure measurement was then continued for up to 12 hrs (total energy expenditure). Clinical data were collected for computation of an illness severity score. Thirteen trauma and 20 septic patients were studied 240 times. All patients were mechanically ventilated. Morphine or fentanyl was infused during 99% of studies. Neuromuscular blocking agents were used in 42% of septic studies. Both the trauma and septic groups were hypermetabolic (mean trauma resting energy expenditure, 36 +/- 6 kcal/kg; mean septic resting energy expenditure, 44 +/- 8 kcal/kg; p < .05). Total energy expenditure was similar to resting energy expenditure (trauma total energy expenditure = resting energy expenditure x 1.035 +/- 0.078, septic total energy expenditure = resting energy expenditure x 1.039 +/- 0.071). Total energy expenditure and resting energy expenditure were linearly related (r2 = .89, p < .0001). Trauma and septic patients are hypermetabolic, even when heavily sedated or medically paralyzed. A measurement of resting energy expenditure is a close approximation of total energy expenditure in most patients.

Objective: To quantify resting and total energy expenditure in patients who have suffered severe trauma and sepsis. Design: Prospective, unblinded, observational, nonrandomized study. Setting: Critical care unit of a Level I adult trauma center. Patients: Immediate posttrauma patients or trauma patients exhibiting signs of sepsis with multiple organ dysfunction. Interventions: An indirect calorimeter was used to measure energy expenditure at rest (resting energy expenditure) at 0700 and 1900 hrs. The energy expenditure measurement was then continued for up to 12 hrs (total energy expenditure). Clinical data were collected for computation of an illness severity score. Results: Thirteen trauma and 20 septic patients were studied 240 times. All patients were mechanically ventilated. Morphine or fentanyl was infused during 99% of studies. Neuromuscular blocking agents were used in 42% of septic studies. Both the trauma and septic groups were hypermetabolic (mean trauma resting energy expenditure, 36 ± 6 kcal/kg; mean septic resting energy expenditure, 44 ± 8 kcal/kg;p< .05). Total energy expenditure was similar to resting energy expenditure (trauma total energy expenditure = resting energy expenditure × 1.035 ± 0.078, septic total energy expenditure = resting energy expenditure × 1.039 ± 0.071). Total energy expenditure and resting energy expenditure were linearly related (r2 = .89,p< .0001). Conclusions: Trauma and septic patients are hypermetabolic, even when heavily sedated or medically paralyzed. A measurement of resting energy expenditure is a close approximation of total energy expenditure in most patients. (Crit Care Med 1994; 22:1796–1804)

Obesity is caused by a prolonged positive energy balance1,2. Whether reduced energy expenditure stemming from reduced activity levels contributes is debated3,4. Here we show that in both sexes, total energy expenditure (TEE) adjusted for body composition and age declined since the late 1980s, while adjusted activity energy expenditure increased over time. We use the International Atomic Energy Agency Doubly Labelled Water database on energy expenditure of adults in the United States and Europe (n = 4,799) to explore patterns in total (TEE: n = 4,799), basal (BEE: n = 1,432) and physical activity energy expenditure (n = 1,432) over time. In males, adjusted BEE decreased significantly, but in females this did not reach significance. A larger dataset of basal metabolic rate (equivalent to BEE) measurements of 9,912 adults across 163 studies spanning 100 years replicates the decline in BEE in both sexes. We conclude that increasing obesity in the United States/Europe has probably not been fuelled by reduced physical activity leading to lowered TEE. We identify here a decline in adjusted BEE as a previously unrecognized factor.

Weight loss is common among patients with Huntington's disease (HD), although the mechanisms contributing to this phenomenon are not known. We measured 24-hour sedentary energy expenditure (24-hour EE) and sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) in a human respiratory chamber in 17 patients with mild to moderate HD and 17 control subjects matched for age, sex, and body mass index. Total energy expenditure was measured during 7 days in free-living conditions, using the doubly labeled water technique. Body weight, fat mass, and fat-free mass (measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry) were similar in patients with HD and control subjects. Twenty-four-hour EE was 14% higher in HD patients than controls in absolute terms (2,038+/-98 vs 1,784+/-68 kcal/24 hours) and after adjustment for age, sex, fat mass, and fat-free mass (1,998+/-45 vs. 1,824+/-45 kcal/24 hours). In contrast, SMR and total energy expenditure were similar in patients and controls both in absolute terms (1,314+/-38 vs 1,316+/-42 and 2,402+/-102 vs. 2,373+/-98 kcal/24 hours, respectively) and after adjustment. Spontaneous physical activity measured by radar in the chamber and the ratio of 24-hour EE to SMR were significantly higher in HD patients than controls (11.4+/-1.4 vs 6.1+/-0.6% and 1.54+/-0.05 vs 1.36+/-0.03, respectively). In the group as a whole, 24-hour EE/SMR correlated with spontaneous physical activity. Among HD patients, both 24-hour EE/SMR and spontaneous physical activity correlated with the severity of chorea, but SMR and total energy expenditure did not. There were no differences in reported energy intake during 7 days in patients with HD compared with controls. The results of this study indicate that sedentary energy expenditure is higher in patients with HD than in controls in proportion to the severity of the movement disorder. Total free-living energy expenditure is not higher, however, because patients with HD appear to engage in less voluntary physical activity.

Weight loss is common among patients with Huntington's disease (HD), although the mechanisms contributing to this phenomenon are not known. We measured 24-hour sedentary energy expenditure (24-hour EE) and sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) in a human respiratory chamber in 17 patients with mild to moderate HD and 17 control subjects matched for age, sex, and body mass index. Total energy expenditure was measured during 7 days in free-living conditions, using the doubly labeled water technique. Body weight, fat mass, and fat-free mass (measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry) were similar in patients with HD and control subjects. Twenty-four-hour EE was 14% higher in HD patients than controls in absolute terms (2,038 ± 98 vs 1,784 ± 68 kcal/24 hours) and after adjustment for age, sex, fat mass, and fat-free mass (1,998 ± 45 vs 1,824 ± 45 kcal/24 hours). In contrast, SMR and total energy expenditure were similar in patients and controls both in absolute terms (1,314 ± 38 vs 1,316 ± 42 and 2,402 ± 102 vs 2,373 ± 98 kcal/24 hours, respectively) and after adjustment. Spontaneous physical activity measured by radar in the chamber and the ratio of 24-hour EE to SMR were significantly higher in HD patients than controls (11.4 ± 1.4 vs 6.1 ± 0.6% and 1.54 ± 0.05 vs 1.36 ± 0.03, respectively). In the group as a whole, 24-hour EE/SMR correlated with spontaneous physical activity. Among HD patients, both 24-hour EE/SMR and spontaneous physical activity correlated with the severity of chorea, but SMR and total energy expenditure did not. There were no differences in reported energy intake during 7 days in patients with HD compared with controls. The results of this study indicate that sedentary energy expenditure is higher in patients with HD than in controls in proportion to the severity of the movement disorder. Total free-living energy expenditure is not higher, however, because patients with HD appear to engage in less voluntary physical activity. Ann Neurol 2000; 47:64–70