Assessing the Capacity of Nature Conservation Law to Help Biodiversity Adapt to Climate Change: The Case of Finland

Climate Change, Connectivity, and Conservation Success

The Torreya Guardians are trying to save the Florida torreya (Torreya taxifolia Arn.) from extinction (Barlow & Martin 2004). Fewer than 1000 individuals of this coniferous tree remain within its native distribution, a 35-km stretch of the Apalachicola River, and these trees are not reproducing (Schwartz et al. 2000). Even if the Florida torreya was not declining toward extinction, the species would be at risk from climate change. Warming is projected to either significantly reduce or eliminate suitable habitat for most narrowly endemic taxa (Thomas et al. 2004; Hannah et al. 2005; Peterson et al. 2006), forcing species to colonize new terrain to survive. The focus of the Torreya Guardians is an “assisted migration” program that would introduce seedlings to forests across the Southern Appalachians and Cumberland Plateau (http://www.TorreyaGuardians.org). Their intent is to avert extinction by deliberately expanding the range of this endangered plant over 500 km northward. Because planting endangered plants in new environments is relatively simple as long as seeds are legally acquired and planted with landowner permission, the Torreya Guardians believe their efforts are justified. Introducing this species to regions where it has not existed for 65 million years is “[e]asy, legal, and cheap” (Barlow & Martin 2004). If circumventing climate-driven extinction is a conservation priority, then assisted migration must be considered a management option. Compelling evidence suggests that climate change will be a significant driver of extinction (McCarthy et al. 2001; McLaughlin et al. 2002; Root et al. 2003; Thomas et al. 2004). Researchers typically conclude that mitigating climate change and providing reserve networks that foster connectivity and movement should be a priority (e.g., Hannah et al. 2002). Ecol-

Food security in Australia in an era of neoliberalism, productivism and climate change

Climate change refers to future fluctuations of temperature, precipitation, wind and alternative components of Earth’s climate system. Global climate change within the style of higher temperature, reduced downfall, and inflated downfall variability reduces crop yield and threatens food security in low financial gain and agriculture primarily based economies. Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable countries experiencing drought and floods as a result of climate variability and change. The general objective of this review is to administer and summary on adaptation and mitigation measures initiative in Ethiopia in response to climate change. In Ethiopia the foremost vulnerable sectors to global climate change and variability are agriculture, road, water energy and health. Thus Mitigation and adaptation measures pursued to effectively address climate change. In Ethiopian farming communities have important indigenous knowledge, skills and technologies that are essential for tackling hazardous environmental conditions including climate variability and change. They employ a number of short- and long-term climate change mitigation and adaptation measures to cope with and overcome the impacts of climate variability and change. On the opposite hand, Ethiopia has shown both conservation and policy responses to combat climate change. Protected area systems, a forestation and reforestation programmes, renewable energy sources and energy efficiency, ecological agriculture, flexible livestock production, agro forestry systems, harvesting and climate change education, are all feasible strategies for mitigating and adapting climate change.

Water sprays from an open fire hydrant in Brooklyn, New York, in the midst of a July 2010 heat wave that affected much of the eastern United States.In 2007 the New York City Department of Environmental Protection first teamed up with Alianza Dominicana, a Washington Heights community organization, to educate city residents about the appropriate use of fire hydrants and other ways

Managing flood risks in a changing climate

Critical Climate Kaila Brown (bio) Impasses of the Post-Global: Theory in the Era of Climate Change, Volume II. Henry Sussman. Open Humanities Press. http://openhumanitiespress.org. 312 pages; paper, $23.99; free PDF. Click for larger view View full resolution Detail from Cover In the past decade, ecocriticism and environmentalist response more generally has come under increasing critical scrutiny. Provocative work from Slavoj Žižek, Timothy Morton, Cary Wolfe, Ben Dibley, and David Wood, among others, has criticized the widespread apocalyptic fetishism, if not lurking anthropocentricism, surrounding “the ecological crisis,” particularly as embraced by humanist scholars in the wave of poststructuralism. Editors Tom Cohen and Claire Colbrooke have been at the forefront of this emerging recalibration of ecological thought and response. The IC3 project takes very seriously the implications of material and ecological exhaustion on modes of production and contemporary Humanities discourse. Critique must not only address the geopolitical, cultural, and material reality of climate change; it must be thoroughly be changed by it. This means that for the contributors to IC3 series, there burns an intense focus on contemporariness, both in timely publication and responsiveness to current events, as well as a “redefinition of disciplinary fields” by expanding the subjects of investigation. It is within this framework of “change” and “transformation” that the series’ two-volume publication Theory in the Era of Climate Change emerges with new challenges, provocations, and manifestos to shake the conceptual templates remaining within humanist (and post-humanist) critique. Telemorphosis: Theory in the Era of Climate Change, edited by Tom Cohen, and its companion, Impasses of the Post-Global: Theory in the Era of Climate Change, edited by Henry Sussman, assemble a diverse set of articles ranging in their specialty and style, offering even seasoned readers in ecocriticism and contemporary critical theory a fresh set of perspectives. In his introduction, Sussman writes that the articles assembled work partially as “a collaborative reality-check regarding the current sequence of catastrophes, shocks, and aftershocks.” Fittingly, the energetic and at times scathing opening article from Tom Cohen, “Anecographics,” sets a sharp tempo and trajectory for the subsequent chapters and what he hopes will be new critical orientations. His article seems initially to engage the dubious compatibility of environmentalism and deconstruction, but quickly erupts into a tour de force, exposing the stakes of the so-called Derridawars, arguing for a conceptualization of “climate change” over and against “environmentalism” and imagining deconstruction without Derrida. Cohen indicts what he terms the prevalent “discourse of mourning” produced in last decade by writers including Judith Butler, N. Katherine Hayles, James Lovelock, Donna Haraway, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, John Protevi, and so on. His criticism reads best, though, when he articulates what “imagined future reader” these discourses take for granted. Cohen’s inventive move to an “anecographic thought” which is “un-invested in any proper name it would ennoble or recuperate as legacy” (Derrida) allows for a “premise of irreversibility (and the positive apprehension of extinction…).” Engaging and perceptive, Cohen’s stunning chapter draws the reader into the IC3 project, expanding what we imagine in our imagining “climate change.” From Cohen’s opening chapter to Sussman’s conclusion, “Auto-Immunity,” a scant but apparent logic organizes the book. Beginning with the more or less explicit “ecological” focus of Cohen, Bruce Clarke’s straightforward illumination of the overlapping and contesting histories of autopoieses and Gaia theory introduces new readers to the terms of engagement between theories of self-referential systems and climate change. Even seasoned readers will benefit from his clear approach. Yates McKee elegantly reads Subhanker Banerjee’s photography and brave call for “climate justice” accounting for the “disproportionate responsibilities for greenhouse emissions on the part of corporations, governments, and consumers in the Global North.” Balancing Clarke and McKee, Tian Song and James Bunn each submit uniquely stylized contemplative critiques of garbage and water, respectively. Chapters 6 through 9 turn our attention ever so slightly from climate change, conceived [End Page 12] ecologically to “climate changes” needed or apparent in critique of the twenty-first century. Rey Chow’s article “Sacrifice, Mimesis, and the Theorizing of Victimhood (A Speculative Essay)” diagnoses Agamben’s departure from Foucault while linking the former’s critique...

Australia's political engagement on health and climate change: the MJA-Lancet Countdown indicator and implications for the future.

Introduction Climate change can no longer be ignored. It is globally recognised that the evidence for climate change is unequivocal and that action needs to be taken in order to address its negative effects. These effects, such as warmer and drier summers and more extreme rainfall, may threaten the quality of life of those living in urban environments. To limit these threats, a number of climate change adaptation measures can be taken to pre-empt the negative effects of climate change. The challenge of increasing the implementation of climate change adaptation measures is addressed in this thesis by engaging the construction sector while focusing on the housing stock that is owned and maintained by Dutch housing associations. By implementing climate change adaptation measures, dwellings will become more resilient to some of the effects of climate change, becoming less vulnerable for damage and ensuring the comfort, safety and quality of life of their occupants. Because housing associations are regarded as societal entrepreneurs, these are expected to use resources and commercial profits to achieve societal aims that are in the common interest, such as making timely adaptations, so that changing climatic conditions cannot threaten the quality of their dwellings. Moreover, there are relatively few housing associations compared to the number of houses they own and maintain. In 2012, there were 381 housing associations that owned and maintained a stock of 2.4 million dwellings, representing 32% of the total Dutch housing stock. This means that approaching the Dutch social rented sector was seen as an effective way of generating a greater societal impact. In the past decade, external influences such as the recent economic crisis and political pressure, have led housing associations to become more cost effective and to make changes in their organisational strategies, which has resulted in the adoption of more integrated project delivery methods, such as partnering. These integrated methods aim to involve the construction sector early in the development of plans so that they can contribute their expertise. This creates a more efficient construction and maintenance process and delivers dwellings of higher quality. The housing associations cannot pre-empt all the effects of climate change alone. For adaptation measures at the neighbourhood level, they are dependent on collaboration with other stakeholders such as municipalities, but there are measures that can be applied at the building level, which falls within their range of influence. An example is the application of lighter colours on building façades in order to reflect radiation and reduce the air temperature close to the façades. The hazards of overflowing sewage systems caused by extreme precipitation can be reduced by applying measures to retain water temporarily, such as ‘green roofs’ or to ensure effective drainage such as open pavements. These measures reduce the peak load on the sewage system. Another effective measure is the use of materials that are not negatively affected by water so that if, despite all the precautionary measures, flooding does occur, the consequences would be less severe. Problem formulation This research assesses the potential of adopting a partnering approach as a governance tool with which to increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures like those described above. The housing stock owned by Dutch housing associations is taken as a case study. Involving the construction sector through a partnering approach is promising, since construction companies are the ones who carry out the works. Their early commitment reduces the risks of miscommunication or failure and enhances opportunities for innovative solutions. By doing this, not only do housing associations take responsibility for their actions, but the construction sector as a whole gains more responsibility for solving societal challenges and is enabled to co-create solutions that can then be disseminated more easily. The main research question is: How can partnering in construction increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures in dwellings owned by Dutch housing associations? Research approach and results To formulate an answer to this research question, several separate studies were conducted. First, the characteristics of three types of governance were studied in a literature review, these being hierarchic, market and network governance. Based on these types of governance, many tools have been developed over time, but to increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures in social housing, not all tools are equally successful, at least not from a theoretical point of view. To improve the implementation of measures, tools could be combined to create a more solid basis for action, and there is room for extra governance tools in the current palette. Based on the literature review on partnering, it was concluded that this could be classified as a combined ‘market’ and ‘network’ type of tool. The market aspect refers to the knowledge of climate change adaptation that is gained by the participating construction companies, which can imply a competitive advantage for them. The network aspect is closely linked to collaboration within a partnering approach. In other contexts, the partnering approach has been shown to remove the barriers of fragmentation in the construction sector; to provide for a more efficient and integral construction process, and to allow for the easier flow of knowledge on climate change adaptation. Next, the current state of knowledge among housing associations was studied with regard to climate change adaptation measures for the housing stock. A content analysis was conducted on the annual reports and policy plans of the 25 largest Dutch housing associations and revealed that they display no awareness of climate change adaptation in their policy documents. As such, they were categorised as ‘unaware’. However, this does not mean that the building stock is not being adapted to climate change, because in the annual reports they state that they have applied climate change adaptation measures, although they do not name these as such. This means that applying adaptation measures is neither impossible nor unrealistic, as long as they are not implemented solely for climate change adaptation purposes, but for other reasons as well, such as energy-efficiency. In contrast to the corporate policy documents, interviews with individual policy-makers showed that housing associations are aware of climate change at a global scale. However, in relation to climate change adaptation measures in their daily work, such as the impact of flooded streets and overheating interiors of dwellings, awareness is low. They could not name many threats or adaptation measures. However, once they had been made aware of the need for such measures, the employees were fairly well capable of assessing them, even though the implementation of measures was evaluated as unfeasible in most cases. The main reason provided was that the housing associations did not have policy guidelines in place for such adaptation measures. Moreover, in many cases there were financial and/or technical barriers that would have to be addressed first. There was a consensus among employees that all the measures would have a positive effect on the comfort of the dwellings. Partnering in construction can help to increase the implementation of adaptation measures because it can overcome many of these challenges. For this reason, the way that housing associations and construction companies carry out refurbishment projects in a partnering approach was also studied. The researcher participated in a knowledge exchange project in which housing associations and construction and maintenance companies had formed dyads and carried out a refurbishment project. They exchanged their experiences on a regular basis through interviews and plenary sessions. In the interviews, employees of housing associations and construction and maintenance companies were asked how they dealt with the success factors for partnering, which were derived from literature. These success factors were trust, leadership, partner capabilities, commitment, conflict resolution, coordination and communication. Although they did not address all these success factors equally well, the study showed that Dutch housing associations and construction and maintenance companies are indeed capable of carrying out housing refurbishment projects in a partnering approach. This allows for the selection of the construction process as a governance tool with which to implement climate change adaptation measures. These measures are considered new products that can be installed with the aim of improving the technical and functional quality of dwellings. In that sense, they are perceived as product innovations, with the dwellings being the ‘products’ and/or assets of the housing associations. This perspective corresponds with the definition1: “[An innovation is] a new idea that is implemented in a construction project with the intention of deriving additional benefits although there might have been associated risks and uncertainties. The new idea may refer to new design, technology, material component or construction method deployed in a project”. Subsequently, the employees of the housing associations and construction and maintenance companies were asked how they dealt with the implementation of innovations using surveys. Although several studies indicate that innovation can benefit when projects are based on an integrated construction process such as partnering, the current study concludes that partnering does not automatically lead to product innovation. Most of the respondents saw partnering itself as the innovative aspect of their projects – i.e. a process innovation. That process innovation required so much attention that there was less emphasis on opportunities for product innovations. This should be taken into account when developing governance tools to encourage the implementation of product innovations in dwellings such as climate change adaptation measures. Moreover, the choice of partnering as a project delivery method as a governance tool is less likely to resolve issues regarding policy, which remain a barrier for the implementation of measures. In addition, other parties can also become involved, to generate resources for the implementation of measures by housing associations. The adoption of partnering as a project delivery method is therefore not the only possible governance tool. To increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures, two more conceptual approaches were developed by the researcher in addition to the initially hypothesised partnering approach. These additional conceptual approaches involved policy development by housing associations vis-à-vis climate change adaptation measures and collaboration with external actors who face the same challenges in order to enhance efficiency in solving these issues together. The feasibility of the three conceptual approaches was verified by means of a SWOT analysis performed with practitioners from housing associations and construction companies as well as external players such as water authorities, insurance companies and municipalities. The results of the SWOT analysis made it clear that single-pronged conceptual approaches are unlikely to be successful because they involve serious weaknesses or threats. A combination of conceptual approaches is much more likely to remove the barriers that obstruct the implementation of climate change adaptation measures. The conceptual approaches were therefore combined and renamed as implementation strategies. In on-line questionnaires carried out among all Dutch housing associations, it was assessed if the housing associations found it likely that these strategies would indeed lead to the implementation of climate change adaptation measures. In general, the respondents assessed the feasibility of all strategies as unlikely to neutral. There was no strategy that clearly stood out as more feasible for the implementation of climate change adaptation measures. However, a considerable number of housing associations assessed one or more implementation strategies positively and saw opportunities for the implementation of measures, albeit framed differently, such as measures to increase energy-efficiency or enhance comfort. Conclusion Based on the findings outlined above, the answer to the main research question is: Partnering in construction can increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures in dwellings owned by housing associations, when it is understood as a catalyst for information-sharing and increased efficiency in the construction process. By looking for shared interests between housing associations and the construction sector, the chances of implementing adaptation measures increase. However, if other stakeholders are involved as well, and if housing associations embed climate change adaptation in their policy guidelines, the likelihood of implementation would increase even more. Although none of the implementation strategies stood out clearly as the strategy most likely to result in the implementation of climate change adaptation measures, a considerable number of housing associations assessed various implementation strategies positively. If the construction process becomes more network-based, which is the case when a partnering approach is adopted, many more parties can become involved and contribute to the implementation of climate change adaptation measures. In such a situation, it no longer matters who introduces the subject during the plan development and construction process, as long as it ends up there and action is taken. To implement these measures more easily, the framing is very important. Climate change adaptation is not enough reason in its own right to begin implementing measures. Insulation to prevent overheating in the summer is considered an ‘extra’ measure - the necessity of which is still questioned by policymakers, for example. However, if the same measure is framed as an energy-saving measure, it is also a cost-cutting measure, which increases the likelihood that policymakers will start making plans to implement it! Scientific implications of the results This thesis has contributed to the development of governance tools to increase the implementation of climate change adaptation measures in dwellings, while current adaptation strategies predominantly target the national or local levels of the built environment. Moreover, this thesis has examined the adoption of partnering as a project delivery method and a governance tool with which to bridge the theoretical fields of network governance and integrated construction and maintenance processes. It extends the palette of governance tools that traditionally consists of information tools, tools relating to the division of property rights, incentives and regulatory tools. It has proven that housing associations can successfully adopt partnering approaches. As such, partnering is a feasible approach by which to increase the implementation of innovative measures such as climate change adaptations. Practical implications The assessment of the five implementation strategies showed that adapting housing for climate change has a low priority as a separate policy field. It is a relatively new area for policymakers, so they may be reluctant to believe that measures are likely to be implemented. Moreover, many other topics may take a higher priority for them, such as improving energy-efficiency and thereby also the affordability of dwellings, and/or preparing the dwellings for an ageing population. In the literature on climate change adaptation, it is suggested that mainstreaming climate change adaptation is the best course, which implies attaching the adaptation policy to existing policy frameworks. This would make policymakers aware of the topic of climate change adaptation and they could look for synergies between measures that were already planned and measures related to climate change adaptations. The refurbishment and maintenance process of housing associations provides opportunities for the mainstreaming of adaptation measures. Housing associations are facing an ageing stock that needs to be improved if it is to continue to meet the ever increasing basic requirements of tenants in terms of quality and comfort and increasingly strict energy-efficiency standards. Since climate change is occurring gradually, there is still time to adapt the building stock gradually, in step with the renovation and maintenance cycles of the housing associations. Bringing in external players, especially municipalities and water authorities, would appear to be a highly feasible approach, given their shared interest in the quality of life in local areas. Bringing together the construction partners requires governance tools that inform them of the benefits of partnering. Particularly if construction companies are to be responsible for the renovation and the maintenance for the rest of the service life of the dwellings, they could focus on improved design solutions that aim to create resilient dwellings, and/or using materials that would be less affected by the effects of climate change. The role of tenants in the implementation of climate change adaptations is primarily that they might exert ‘bottom-up’ pressure by requesting action from housing associations. But for this to happen, they would likely need to be informed about the effects of climate change on their dwellings and/or neighbourhoods, in order for them to be motivated to ensure that their homes are climate change resilient.

Introduction to <i>Climate Change Adaptation in New York City: Building a Risk Management Response</i>

Submarine pipelines have become integral for transporting resources and drinking water across large bodies. Therefore, ensuring the stability and reliability of these submarine pipelines is crucial. Incorporating climate change impacts into the design of marine structures is paramount to assure their lifetime safety and serviceability. Deterministic design methods may not fully consider the uncertainties and risks related to climate change compared to risk-based design models. The latter approach considers the future risks and uncertainties linked to climate and environmental changes, thus ensuring infrastructure sustainability. This study pioneers a Hybrid 3D Hydrodynamic Monte Carlo Simulation (HMCS) Model to improve the reliability-based design of submarine pipelines, incorporating the effects of climate change. Current design approaches may follow deterministic methods, which may not systematically account for climate change’s comprehensive uncertainties and risks. Similarly, traditional design codes often follow a deterministic approach, lacking in the comprehensive integration of dynamic environmental factors such as wind, waves, currents, and geotechnical conditions, and may not adequately handle the uncertainties, including the long-term effects of climate change. Nowadays, most countries are developing new design codes to modify the risk levels for climate change’s effects, such as sea-level rises, changes in precipitation, or changes in the frequency/intensity of winds/storms/waves in coastal and marine designs. Our model may help these efforts by integrating a comprehensive risk-based approach, utilizing a 3D hydrodynamic model to correlate diverse environmental factors through Monte Carlo Simulations (MCS). The hybrid model can promise the sustainability of marine infrastructure by adapting to future environmental changes and uncertainties. Including such advanced methodologies in the design, codes are encouraged to reinforce the resilience of maritime structures in the climate change era. The present design codes should inevitably be reviewed according to climate change effects, and the hybrid risk-based design model proposed in this research should be included in codes to ensure the reliability of maritime structures. The HMCS model represents a significant advancement over existing risk models by incorporating comprehensive environmental factors, utilizing advanced simulation techniques, and explicitly addressing the impacts of climate change. This innovative approach ensures the development of more resilient and sustainable maritime infrastructure capable of withstanding future environmental uncertainties.

The continuity of farmers in farming under the impacts of climate change (CC), especially in developing nations, is still less investigated in literature. A survey was conducted among 220 farmers in selected rural communities in Ondo, Nigeria. The data were subjected to both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. The results showed that male gender formed 90% of the respondents, 68% of the respondents cultivate up to 15 acres of farmland while 61% had experienced a decrease in their farmland sizes between 2000 and 2023 of which 47% (103 out of 220) claimed was due to erratic rainfall. Factor analysis identified and extracted three significant options for the sustainability of farmers’ living in the CC era, namely, (i) adoption of soil and water conservation option (35.007%); (ii) abandonment of farming for another means of livelihood (15.052%) and (iii) reduction in the farmland size (11.774%). However, in view of the combined weights of options (i) and (iii) ([74.57% of the absolute value]) which explained farmers’ preference to remain in farming, it, thus, implied that farmers will rather take options that will keep them in framing despite the impact of CC rather than abandoning it. The results are indications of the prevalence of CC and the policies that will enhance farming in CC era to be put in place to sustain the livelihood of farmers. Further studies are suggested on enhancing farmers’ livelihood to keep them in agriculture in the CC era.

Climate change has significantly altered global ecosystems, including population dynamics, and consequently, decisions regarding childbearing. Climate change is considered one of the factors influencing childbearing intention. Therefore, the present study was conducted to explore the determinants of childbearing intention in women and men of reproductive age in the climate change era in Iran. The present qualitative study employs a conventional content analysis approach. The participants comprised 40 men and women of reproductive age residing in Qom, who were selected from February to July 2024 through purposive sampling while adhering to the principle of maximum diversity and were included in the study after providing informed consent. Data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews until theoretical saturation was achieved and were analyzed concurrently. During the inductive data analysis process, 360 codes and 5 main categories with 16 subcategories emerged. The main categories encompassed "Climate Change Awareness and Its Perceived Relevance to Childbearing Intention," "Ethical Dilemmas and Parental Responsibility," "Environmental and Economic Barriers to Childbearing," "Health Implications of Climate Change," and "Policy Demands for Climate-Resilient Parenthood." Childbearing intentions in the climate change era are shaped by a dynamic interplay of environmental, economic, health, and cultural factors. This understanding emphasizes the necessity of implementing multidisciplinary solutions to protect human health and fertility rates in the context of climate change.

The scientific community agrees that climate change is happening, is largely human induced, and will have serious consequences for human health (Field and others 2014). The health consequences of climate variability and change are diverse, potentially affecting the burden of a wide range of health outcomes. Changing weather patterns can affect the magnitude and pattern of morbidity and mortality from extreme weather and climate events, and from changing concentrations of ozone, particulate matter, and aeroallergens (Smith and others 2014). Changing weather patterns and climatic shifts may also create environmental conditions that facilitate alterations in the geographic range, seasonality, and incidence of some infectious diseases in some regions, such as the spread of malaria into highland areas in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. Changes in water availability and agricultural productivity could affect undernutrition, particularly in some parts of Africa and Asia (Lloyd, Kovats, and Chalabi 2011). Although climate change will likely increase positive health outcomes in some regions, the overall balance will be detrimental for health and well-being, especially in low- and lower-middle-income countries that experience higher burdens of climate-sensitive health outcomes (Smith and others 2014).The pathways between climate change and health outcomes are often complex and indirect, making attribution challenging. Climate change may not be the most important driver of climate-sensitive health outcomes over the next few decades but could be significant past the middle of this century. Climate change is a stress multiplier, putting pressure on vulnerable systems, populations, and regions. For example, temperature is associated with the incidence of some food- and water-borne diseases that are significant sources of childhood mortality (Smith and others 2014). Reducing the burden of these diseases requires improved access to safe water and improved sanitation. Poverty is a primary driver underlying the health risks of climate change (Smith and others 2014). Poverty alleviation programs could improve the capacity of health systems to manage risks and reduce the overall costs of a changing climate.Climate change entails other unique challenges:Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) in the next few years will be critical to preventing more severe climate change later in the century, but they will have limited effects on weather patterns in the short term. In terms of costing, another complexity is that these policies and technologies are associated with short-term health benefits (Garcia-Menendez and others 2015).Reducing and managing health risks over the next few decades will require modifying health systems to prepare for, cope with, and recover from the health consequences of climate variability and change; these changes are part of what is termed adaptation. Adaptation will be required across the century, with the extent of mitigation being a key determinant of health systems’ ability to manage risks projected later in the century (Smith and others 2014). No matter the success of adaptation and mitigation, residual risks from climate change will burden health systems, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).Given these complexities, estimating the costs of managing the health risks of climate variability and change is not straightforward. The wide range of health outcomes potentially affected means counting (1) costs associated with increased health care and public health interventions for morbidity and mortality from a long list of climate-sensitive health outcomes; (2) costs associated with lost work days and lower productivity; and (3) costs associated with well-being. Costs could also accrue from repeated episodes of malaria, diarrhea, or other infectious diseases that affect childhood development and health in later life. Costs associated with actions taken in other sectors are also important for health, such as access to safe water and improved sanitation. A portion of the costs of managing the health risks associated with migrants and environmental refugees could be, but has not been, counted.Further, costs and benefits will be displaced over time, with costs associated with increased health burdens occurring now because of past greenhouse gas emissions and benefits occurring later in the century because of mitigation implemented in the next few years. A few preliminary estimates have been made of the costs of adaptation. However, more work is needed to understand how climate variability and change could affect the ability of health systems to manage risks over long temporal scales.This chapter reviews the health risks of climate variability and change, discusses key components of those risks, summarizes the attributes of climate-resilient health systems, provides an overview of the costs of increasing health resilience that arise from other sectors, reviews temporal and spatial scale issues, and summarizes key conclusions regarding the costs of the health risks of climate change.

Bangladesh is the country most likely to experience severe problems because of its vulnerability to climate change (Roy et. al, 2011, Harmeling, 2010). In some ways it has and is responding well to these challenges through the production of the “Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan” and the international role it is playing in promoting climate change mitigation and demanding resources for adaptation. However, the focus of policy and action in Bangladesh is on food security and adapting to climate change in rural areas; research, policy and action on adaptation in urban areas, and particularly for low-income settlements and poor people, has been neglected (Banks, Roy and Hulme, 2011). This paper presents the initial findings on work in low-income urban settlements examining household and community capacity to adapt to climate change. It finds that adaptation is integrally linked to urban governance and that the ‘real world’ of informal urban governance is as important (perhaps more important) as the official system of urban governance in supporting and constraining capacities to adapt. We explain this informal governance structure, analyze its formation process and explore its strengths and weaknesses. Our analysis indicates that this network based de-facto structure relies heavily on the existing power relations that the poor can access and is unlikely to produce environmentally sustainable or socially just outcomes in the long run. We use the concept of co-production and the institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework (Ostrom, 2005, 2010) to structure our analysis.