ARDI: a new dataset for automatic advocate recommendation in the Indian Legal System

This paper seeks to present the well known philosopher G.W.F. HEGEL, who is related to the Historical Law School. He said that at the level of morality a right and wrong is nothing else, but it is matter of individual conscience. He describes his philosophy with the three concepts of will, freedom and rights and he described that what is free will? the paper presents the relevance of his philosophy with the help of Indian Contract Law and the cases that is decided by the courts with the application of his philosophy i.e. the ‘Philosophy of Rights’. In Atlas v Kafko, the court held that it is case of the undue influence and by it the consent is not a free consent. It is not contract and the appeal was rejected by the court. Relevance in world is introduced in India with the help of Indian Contract Law and by the cases in which the Hegelian philosophy has been mentioned. As the Hegel talked about the contract, the Indian legal system has also mentioned about the contract law and Hegelian theory has importance not only with the Indian legal system but in English legal system also. Hegel has mentioned ‘consent’ to the contract especially ‘free consent’; it has great importance in both Indian contract Law and English Legal System. The English legal system has given a lot of emphasis on the consent in terms of contract to save the individuality. In Atlas v Kafko , carrier A agreed to carry B’s certain goods at a certain rate, which was calculated by A on the basis that x cartons of B’s goods could be carried per load. Finding that the calculation was wrong and knowing that B’s survival in the business depended on the goods reaching an important customer, Woolworth Plc, A told B that A would not carry B’s goods to W unless B paid twice rate. B was unable to find an alternative carrier within time and promised to pay the new rate. But later B refused to pay the difference money. A’s action to recover that sum failed because B had agreed to pay under compulsion and under protest. The court held that it is a case of undue influence.

Computational complexity and overthinking problems have become the bottlenecks for pre-training language models (PLMs) with millions or even trillions of parameters. A Flexible-Patience-Based Early Exiting method (F-PABEE) has been proposed to alleviate the problems mentioned above for single-label classification (SLC) and multi-label classification (MLC) tasks. F-PABEE makes predictions at the classifier and will exit early if predicted distributions of cross-layer are consecutively similar. It is more flexible than the previous state-of-the-art (SOTA) early exiting method PABEE because it can simultaneously adjust the similarity score thresholds and the patience parameters. Extensive experiments show that: (1) F-PABEE makes a better speedup-accuracy balance than existing early exiting strategies on both SLC and MLC tasks. (2) F-PABEE achieves faster inference and better performances on different PLMs such as BERT and ALBERT. (3) F-PABEE-JSKD performs best for F-PABEE with different similarity measures.

Indian Legal System is a unique amalgamation of Hindu, Islamic, English and certain other influences and has a diverse and extensive history. Hindu Civilizations ruled the subcontinent until the Muslims invaded the land in the 12th Century AD which marked the beginning of a period of Islamic dominance. Thereafter, the Englishmen rose to power and took control of the subcontinent and introduced its own systems and policies. Thus, the Indian system we see today is perplex and enshrines major portions of the systems of these three eras. In India, Muslim Law has existed from centuries and has been continuously subjected to various amendments and regulations over the period of time. The specific civil matters such as marriage, inheritance and transfer of properties have been adjudicated by the Personal Law, which has been modified and has remained an integral part of the Indian Society. This research article has been written to analyze the promulgation of Islamic jurisprudence in the Indian legal system over the period of time. Herein, the basic principles of Islamic laws are discussed, as it was during its foundation. The paper first attempts to study the true nature of Islamic Jurisprudence i.e. what is it about and what are its key features. Then the article studies the promulgation and historical evolution of the same in the Indian Legal System, with respect to the legislation and amendments made over the period of time. Thus, after having the basic idea of the subject and its implications in India, the author discusses the idea of the Uniform Civil Code.

The contemporary Indian legal system owes its origin predominantly to the English common law system. Although this system ushered modernity in India, it has failed to perform optimally on several counts owing to its significant incompatibility with existing Indian traditions. Taking into account indigenously created and evolved legal apparatuses, this volume examines all aspects of the Indian legal system in the context of historical, sociological, and anthropological realities of society. The establishment and growth of common law in India introduced a certain kind of dominant legal apparatus, significantly transforming the understanding of India’s legal plurality. The existence, however, of multiple non-state legal traditions challenges the singular identity of the Indian legal system. Postulating that legal systems cannot be seen or studied in isolation from the cultures of groups whose affairs they regulate, The Indian Legal System explores the preference for non-state legal practices among several communities in India, despite the existence of a formal state legal system.

The foundation of Kautlya, sometimes Chanakya, a figment of a lawyer and political philosopher whose writing commenced in the fourth century BC, is significant in legal and political philosophy. Arthashastra, his foundational works, set the primary notions regarding laws, government, and justice in ancient India. Some of them still exist in the contemporary Indian legal system; his jurisprudence underscored Dandaniti (Rule of Law), Rajadharma (Dues of the King), and Vyavahara (Judicial Procedures). Under Kautilya, Arthashastra' s theories on judicial hierarchy, legal codification, rule of law, and anti-corruption policies are aligned with the Indian Constitution, Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (Crpc), and Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. Specifically, it studies how these ideas help develop modern Indian law concerning constitutional law, administrative law, and human rights. This paper analyzes carefully the various court rulings and legislative actions that can bring forth how the notions of Kautilya are assimilated into the Indian legal theory for a robust and fair legal system. This study argues that by infusing Kautilya's principles, the present-day legal systems in India become more valid and effective; it further suggests other prospects for using these principles in tackling issues of contemporary law. Addendum: There is a reference in some court judgments to Arthashastra by the Indian legal system, thus underlining its historical and cultural importance. However, much of the modern legal approach, especially concerning the individual rights-based approach, cries against Kautlya's tenets. Modern legal systems stress social justice and equality as defined in the Indian Constitution and several international human rights treaties.

Relations extraction is an important semantic analysis task in the field of natural language processing. We propose a new end-to-end model for joint extraction of entities and relations. In this model, we use a matching mechanism to match the relations and entities, transforming the joint extraction task into a combination of multi-label classification and sequence labeling task, and we use the dilated convolution combined with LSTM to encode words, more fully extract the semantics in the text. Firstly, we detect relations and entities separately, where we consider relations extraction as a multi-label classification task. Then we match the detected relations with the detected multiple entities. We conduct experiments on a dataset generated by distant supervision method. The accuracy of our experimental results reach 0.693, the recall rate is 0.430, and the F1 is 0.531, which exceed the experimental results of most models. The experimental results show that our method is better than most of the current joint extraction methods and can effectively extract overlapping relations.

In the recent literature on multi-label classification, a lot of attention is given to methods that exploit label dependencies. Most of these methods assume that the dependencies are static over the entire instance space. In contrast, here we present an approach that dynamically adapts the label partitions in a multi-label decision tree learning context. In particular, we adapt the recently introduced predictive bi-clustering tree (PBCT) method towards multi-label classification tasks. This way, tree nodes can split the instance-label matrix both in a horizontal and a vertical way. We focus on hierarchical multi-label classification (HMC) tasks, and map the label hierarchy to a feature set over the label space. This feature set is exploited to infer vertical splits, which are regulated by a lookahead strategy in the tree building procedure. We evaluate our proposed method using benchmark datasets. Experiments demonstrate that our proposal (PBCT-HMC) obtained better or competitive results in comparison to its direct competitors, both in terms of predictive performance and model size. Compared to an HMC method that does not produce label partitions though, our method results in larger models on average, while still producing equally large or smaller models in one third of the datasets by creating suitable label partitions.

Sigmoid output layers are widely used in multi-label classification (MLC) tasks, in which multiple labels can be assigned to any input. In many practical MLC tasks, the number of possible labels is in the thousands, often exceeding the number of input features and resulting in a low-rank output layer. In multi-class classification, it is known that such a low-rank output layer is a bottleneck that can result in unargmaxable classes: classes which cannot be predicted for any input. In this paper, we show that for MLC tasks, the analogous sigmoid bottleneck results in exponentially many unargmaxable label combinations. We explain how to detect these unargmaxable outputs and demonstrate their presence in three widely used MLC datasets. We then show that they can be prevented in practice by introducing a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) output layer, which guarantees that all sparse label combinations with up to k active labels are argmaxable. Our DFT layer trains faster and is more parameter efficient, matching the F1@k score of a sigmoid layer while using up to 50% fewer trainable parameters. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/andreasgrv/sigmoid-bottleneck.

Multi-label weak-label learning via semantic reconstruction and label correlations

Aspect Extraction from consumer reviews has become an essential factor for successful Aspect Based Sentiment Analysis. Typical user trends to mention his opinion against several aspects in a single review; therefore, aspect extraction has been tackled as a multi-label classification task. Due to its complexity and the variety across different domains, yet, no single system has been able to achieve comparable accuracy levels to the human-accuracy. However, novel neural network architectures and hybrid approaches have shown promising results for aspect extraction. (Support Vector Machines) SVMs and (Convolutional Neural Networks) CNNs pose a viable solution to the multi-label text classification task and has been successfully applied to identify aspects in reviews. In this paper, we first define an improved CNN architecture for aspect extraction which achieves comparable results against the current state-of-the-art systems. Then we propose a mixture of classifiers for aspect extraction, combining the proposed improved CNN with an SVM that uses the state-of-the-art manually engineered features. The combined system outperforms the results of individual systems while showing a significant improvement over the state-of-the-art aspect extraction systems that employ complex neural architectures such as MTNA.

“Justice delayed is justice denied” and “justice hurried is justice buried” are oft quoted proverbs in legal studies. While the latter is rarely prevalent in India, the former has maligned the image of the Indian legal system considerably. Delay in disposal of cases, pendency of cases, especially those of civil and commercial nature, and inducing unnecessary procedural complexities in litigation process are hindrances that come in the way of access to justice. Several reports of the Law Commission of India have pointed out that the present situation is very grim with escalating number of pending cases in the courts in India. To add to this compelling situation, the COVID-19 pandemic has further disrupted the court proceedings by increasing burden, moving the hearings from physical to virtual courtrooms. The endeavour of the authors in this chapter has been to search for convincing reasons that have led to inordinate delays in disposal of civil cases and to find out possible solutions to this problem plaguing the Indian legal system.

The Indian legal system is deeply intertwined with the country's constitutional framework, which establishes various constitutional bodies to uphold governance, justice, and democratic integrity. These institutions, including the Election Commission of India, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Finance Commission, the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), and the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), play a crucial role in preserving the balance of power, ensuring accountability, and protecting fundamental rights. The dissertation examines the historical evolution, legal foundations, and contemporary relevance of these bodies in shaping India's legal landscape. This study explores how constitutional bodies function as pillars of democracy by maintaining checks and balances, curbing executive overreach, and fostering transparency in governance. Through an in-depth analysis of constitutional provisions, judicial precedents, and legislative enactments, this research evaluates the effectiveness of these entities in safeguarding constitutional principles. It also investigates their administrative challenges, including political interference, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and evolving regulatory needs. The dissertation critically assesses the role of the judiciary in interpreting and reinforcing the powers of constitutional bodies. By studying landmark Supreme Court judgments and High Court rulings, the research sheds light on how these institutions have evolved to meet the demands of an ever-changing socio-political and legal environment. Additionally, this study compares India's constitutional bodies with similar institutions in other democratic nations, providing a comparative perspective on best practices, structural efficiencies, and mechanisms for institutional strengthening. Furthermore, the research highlights the interplay between constitutional bodies and the broader legislative framework, discussing their contributions to law enforcement, public policy formation, and governance reforms. Special attention is given to their role in electoral integrity, financial regulation, public service appointments, and human rights protection, illustrating their indispensable function in upholding democratic values. By synthesizing constitutional theory, legal analysis, and empirical observations, this dissertation aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how constitutional bodies shape and sustain India's legal system. The findings underscore the need for structural reforms, enhanced autonomy, and greater public awareness to ensure their continued efficacy in protecting constitutional democracy.

Stages of Capital: Law, Culture and Market Governance in Late Colonial India. By Ritu Birla. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2009. 360 pp. $89.95 cloth; $24.95 paper. Global Business, Local Law: The Indian Legal System as a Communal Resource in Foreign Investment Relations. By Amanda Perry-Kessaris. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008. 198 pp. $99.95 cloth. Ritu Birla's path-breaking book Stages of Capital is a much-awaited legal history of Indian capitalism and the role of indigenous capitalists therein. It focuses in particular on the North Indian business community of the Marwaris in the period spanning 1870 through 1930. An ambitious undertaking in reach and scope, the book draws on rich archival materials on ''the law on economy'' (p. 6) to chart the stages of capital in a temporal (status to contract) as well as spatial (the interplay between economy and culture) sense. Birla demonstrates how the colonial production of Indian Economic Man caused him to coexist in the spaces of both status and contract while reminding readers of the mutual constitution of the discourses on the economy and culture through an investigation of market as culture. In writing ''between histories of world capitalism and the world history of capital'' (p. 7; emphasis in original), Birla brings into conversation postcolonial studies and social histories of Indian capitalism. Law, Birla argues, played a central role in this ''staging of capital as modernity'' (p. 236) by rendering indigenous practices commensurate with a value system structured by contract, revealing in the process several points of incommensurability, then mediated and consolidated through the shifting registers of binaries such as law/custom, public/private, and economy/culture. The two main parts of the book highlight different aspects of this process. Part I, consisting of the first three chapters, elaborates on how the legal standardization of commerce from the late nineteenth century onward produced the market as a supralocal object of governance, while Part II details, in the fourth and fifth chapters, how Marwaris as vernacular capitalists both resisted and appropriated colonial legal discourse by the 1920s to fashion themselves as rational, economic actors; in other words, as legitimate bearers of capital. After an introduction that outlines the arguments of the book, Chapter 1 focuses on how the 1882 Indian Companies Act, the 1886 Income Tax Act, and the 1881 Negotiable Instruments Act both ''reduced the extended family firm into joint household, making it a suspect market actor, and abstracted it in a mimesis of individuated contractual relations'' (p. 17; emphasis in original). Chapters 2 and 3 elaborate on the colonial law of charitable endowments relating to private and public religious trusts, respectively. Here, colonial law understood indigenous ''multitasking forms of endowment'' (p. 79) through analogy and, later, identification with the British private trust, established through ''mad manoeuvres-sometimes legal flights of fancy'' (p. 75). The colonial juridification of deities as the only possible beneficiaries of charitable gifts in perpetuity, Birla argues, materially detracted from the free flow of charity across the public/private divide by vernacular capitalists and challenged their symbolic meanings by casting them as private ventures. Similarly, the colonial legal requirement that the public religious trust generate ''general public utility'' recast mercantile gifts as irrelevant to civic benefit, thereby producing a shift from a shared and layered precolonial sovereignty to a new model of sharing in colonial sovereignty (p. 29). Chapter 4 offers an absorbing and memorable account of how colonial criminal law policed, between 1895 and 1920, the boundaries of business, leisure, and crime through its classification of wagering, betting, horse-racing, indigenous hedging contracts in commodities markets, and indigenous recreational gaming such as rain-betting and betting on opium, cotton, and jute prices. …

The moral issue of the legal department is an extremely important and controversial issue. The scope of this paper is to discuss the role of morality in the current legal system, with particular emphasis on India 's recent judgments and their implications for society. This paper also focuses on the debate between freedom and security, the importance of intention in determining whether an act is criminal, and the role of the state in promoting and maintaining certain moral standards. It further discusses the impact of moral concepts in the future era and the way forward, distinguishing between illegal and immoral. It also discusses in detail the judgments that mark major changes in the country 's belief system, such as the decriminalization of adultery, the recognition of the rights of LGBTQ + groups, and the right to die with dignity. The purpose of this paper is to present the relationship between law and morality in society and to examine its current relevance, particularly in the Indian legal system.

Substantial Due Process and Procedural Due Process in Indian Legal System- Dimension of Judicial Review in India