Arbitration and the Emergence of Sectarianism: A Historical Examination of the Transition of Conflict from Politics to Theology

Many candidates for the presidency, including Franklin Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan, have promised to reduce the cost and improve the performance of government. At the state level, gubernatorial candidates often make similar promises. Once elected, some of these new chief executives actually do attempt to follow through on their promises. They generally appoint a study commission to analyze the organization and administration of the executive branch, and these commissions usually find that the government is badly organized, poorly managed, and suffering from outdated administrative practices and procedures. ' Reorganization is the remedy often prescribed for the ills identified; the anticipated results are big savings (economy) and improved service delivery (effectiveness). In sharp contrast to this optimistic political rhetoric, reorganization for economy and efficiency has been largely discredited in the contemporary academic literature. Indeed, modern political scientists tend to think of reorganization as a political rather than an administrative tool. Some scholars, like March and Olson, emphasize its potency as a symbolic tool that chief executives can use to manipulate public opinion.2 Others, like Seidman, stress its value as a tactical vehicle for limiting or enhancing individual and group access to the decision-making process.3 Yet, despite the popularity of this political model of reorganization, the fact remains that most of the existing work on reorganization is either conceptual or anecdotal. Empirically based studies of the bottom line results of reorganization are almost nonexistent, and thus our knowledge of the consequences of reorganization remains limited.4 The purpose of this paper is to take a careful look at some of the old but important questions about reorganization and the bottom line. Specifically, three questions are investigated: (1) Can reorganization be an effective tool for reducing the cost of government? (2) Can it be used successfully to reduce budget deficits or to balance budgets? (3) Can it be an effective tool for improving governmental performance? The data for this analysis are drawn from a statewide reorganization that took place in New Jersey during 1982 and 1983. Data sources include state budget documents, official state publications, press reports, and the published and unpublished material from the reorganization itself. In addition, 135 interviews were conducted with public sector managers and private sec* Chief executives at both the national and state levels regularly promise to reduce the cost and improve the performance of government by overhauling the bureaucracy. Modern political scientists, however, tend to dismiss these claims as empty rhetoric. Indeed, reorganization for economy and efficiency (the traditional model) has been largely discredited in the contemporary academic literature, and it has been replaced by a new (political) model. Yet, the fact remains that we know very little about the bottom line results of reorganization because empirical analysis is almost nonexistent. In this paper, the bottom line results of a 1982 statewide reorganization in New Jersey are systematically analyzed. Based on the findings of this analysis, the author concludes that the pendulum has swung too far in one direction with the current and nearly exclusive emphasis on the political dimensions of reorganization.

Purpose of the study. This article analyzes extremist practices in the Russian Empire of the 18th–19th centuries as forms of cultural and philosophical response to crises of measure, identity, and authority under the conditions of catch-up modernization. It is demonstrated that extremism is not an anomaly but a specific structure of the cultural chronotope, in which violence, sacrifice, and the refusal of compromise become instruments of historical action and symbolic expression. The study examines the 17th-century religious schism, Old Believer resistance, Peter I’s reformist absolutism, peasant and Cossack uprisings, as well as the revolutionary ideology of the radical intelligentsia. It concludes that extremism in Russian culture was not merely a political practice, but an expression of sacred anxiety and a metaphysical drive to restore authentic legitimacy through the destruction of the old world. The aim of the study is to reconstruct extremism as a philosophical and cultural mechanism that structures transitional states of Russian civilization in situations of temporal and ontological crisis. Research methodology. The study is based on a philosophical and cultural approach that interprets extremism not as a social deviation, but as a form of symbolic and ontological response to crises of measure, identity, and authority. The research employs methods of philosophical hermeneutics, event analysis, and categorical synthesis (measure, form, symbol, violence). The central methodological framework is event analysis, which treats extremist acts as turning points in cultural history — disrupting established norms and generating new layers of meaning. This is complemented by philosophical hermeneutics, which reveals the internal logic of radical action as an expression of sacred anxiety. The study also employs categorical analysis of the concepts of measure, gesture, sacrifice, violence, and imposture, allowing for the reconstruction of the deep structures of cultural memory. A key role is also played by the cultural-semiotic approach, which views extremism as a mode of meaning-making under conditions of normative collapse. The results of the study. The study produced theoretically and culturally significant findings that enable a new interpretation of extremism in the history of the Russian Empire as an ontologically meaningful and philosophically structured phenomenon. It was established that extremism in 18th–19th century Russia is not a marginal deviation but a structural element of the cultural chronotope that emerges during moments of civilizational rupture, when established norms and forms of legitimacy lose their stability. The 17th-century religious schism and the resistance of the Old Believers are interpreted as extremism of measure — a sacred protest against ontological intrusion into the liturgical and ritual order. These forms of violence are not political but metaphysical in nature. The emergence of state extremism under Peter I is analyzed as a model in which violence becomes not an exception but a rationalized tool of modernization embedded within state normativity. The study highlights the dual nature of power, which combines order with destruction. Further, the transformation of extremism in popular culture during the 18th–19th centuries is revealed in the form of peasant and Cossack uprisings, sectarian movements, and the cult of the impostor as an archetype of sacred resistance. Popular consciousness perceives violence as a means of restoring lost justice. The philosophy of the radical intelligentsia (from Belinsky to Lenin) is reconstructed as an ideological system in which violence acquires ethical and mythopoetic legitimacy. Terror becomes not only a political act but a form of cultural expression. The study introduces the concept of «pure extremism» as the final stage of radical action, in which the destruction of order becomes an end in itself and an act of eschatological rupture with historical time. Revolution is thus interpreted as a metaphysical limit of modernity, where measure as a cultural category vanishes. The prospects of studying. The findings of this study open up avenues for further investigation of extremism as a structural phenomenon of cultural history that transcends political or criminological interpretations. Promising directions for future research include: expanding the historical scope of analysis to include extremist practices of the Soviet and post-Soviet periods in order to trace the continuity between imperial and modernist forms of violence and radicalism; comparative cultural analysis, involving the juxtaposition of the Russian model of extremism with similar phenomena in Western European, Islamic, and East Asian cultural contexts, which would help identify both universal and culturally specific parameters of extremism as a form of limit-experience; deepening the conceptual framework through the development of key notions such as gesture, imposture, eschatological action, and symbolic sacrifice as core forms of expressing extremist experience within culture.

This article examines an overly optimistic portrayal of the EU and its relationship with Turkey within the context of an essentialist framework for the dynamics of Turkish politics. It critically scrutinises conventional understandings of the dynamics of Turkey's domestic politics. It professes that relying upon outdated models of domestic political cleavages is not sufficient to understand the key dynamics of Turkey's EU accession process. The article analyses Turkey's interaction with Europe by incorporating, but also moving beyond, the narrow confines of dichotomous thinking: the West–East divide, modern versus traditional, global–local and secular pitted against Islamicist. Drawing upon the contemporary academic literature in Europe and Turkey, the article advances an alternative analytical perspective in order to understand better the dynamic changes within Turkey and Europe.

The article, based on an examination of an array of publications by researchers in academic journals, focuses on the extent to which the new economic policy in the USSR has been studied. The author highlights the most difficult aspects of the problem, namely the quality of self-organisation, the interaction of the sectors of the NEP economy, the effectiveness of control “from the top”, which indeed raised many questions among politicians, scholars and specialists in the late 1920s and among historians for many decades. The analysis suggests that there is a distinctive historiographical bridge between the best historical studies of the Soviet era and those of the first decades of the twenty-first century. The main achievement of the historical research on the problem has been to reveal the scale of the difficulties of an ideological, financial and personnel nature that arose during the years of the NEP, primarily in agriculture. Historians have justifiably pointed out the low profitability of public sector enterprises. The possibility of implementing an industrial project on the basis of the New Economic Policy remains a controversial issue in the academic literature. At the same time, a study of the combinaion of factors that led to the adoption of the first five-year plan demonstrates the potential of the multilayered economy of the 1920s, refuting the thesis of the “backwardness” and “doom” of the NEP. The analysis of historiographical writings on the NEP leads to the conclusion that in recent years this period has reverted to a relatively neglected research area in contemporary academic literature: studies on the historical methodology of Bolshevism and Stalinism have been suspended; characteristic is the absence of major works on the “new economic policy” as a system in the context of the political, social and economic development of Soviet society. The article systematises and elaborates on overlooked and little-studied problems.

Contemporary academic literature has controversial opinions about selflessness of motives of volunteers. Some authors state that volunteers are primarily motivated either by altruistic causes or egoistic factors; others declare the impossibility of the existence of pure altruists or egoists in the activity. Part of scholars report on the extreme importance of age regarding volunteers’ motives. Conducted studies mostly consider volunteers with people. Papers investigating motives of volunteers with homeless animals are limited. A still unsolved question is whether it is reasonable to apply received results from those who volunteer with people to volunteers with non-human recipients. In the paper, we investigate the particularities and structures of motives among volunteers with diverse ages and recipients (N=220), utilizing VFI (Volunteer Function Inventory). The research sample consisted of volunteers serving people and/or homeless animals. It has been found that volunteers are mostly motivated by values, understanding, and enhancement functions. The social, career and protective functions were not common among the volunteers. Younger volunteers tend to be more multi-motivated and actuated by egoistic factors. Starting at age 25, the older the volunteer was, the more likely their motives were selfless and distinct. Studies such as ours can be valuable in recruitment and retention of volunteers according to their needs and motives. The obtained data can be used by organizations working with differently aged volunteers and diverse recipients of assistance (e.g., people, animals).

Digital transformation has permeated various aspects of life, including spiritual practices within Hinduism, a tradition rich in the values of bhakti (devotion). This article explores the transformation of bhakti-based spiritual communication in the context of digital media, particularly through practices such as live-streamed puja, spiritual content on YouTube, and other online platforms. Utilizing a qualitative, literature-based approach, this study integrates classical Hindu texts such as the Bhagavata Purana and Narada Bhakti Sutra with contemporary academic literature on digital religious communication. The findings indicate that while the form and medium of ritual delivery have undergone significant transformation, the core values of bhakti—including divine love, selfless service (seva), and spiritual connection—remain preserved. Moreover, digital connectivity expands the reach of devotional practices, enabling spiritual participation across geographical and generational boundaries. Virtual communities actively contribute to shaping inclusive and adaptive digital worship spaces. Thus, digital bhakti not only represents a new mode of spirituality but also affirms the resilience and adaptability of Hindu teachings in the technological age. Keywords: Bhakti, Spiritual Communication, Online Puja, Digital Hinduism, Devotion, YouTube Spirituality

The article examines the criticism that is expressed in contemporary academic literature regarding the institution of political elections. With reference to the works of van Reybrouck, Achen and Bartels, it is demonstrated that elections cannot always be considered as an expression of the will, opinion or interests of the people, often do not contribute to effective and legitimate government, as well as to the selection of sufficiently conscientious and qualified rulers. At the same time, the defense of the political elections from the standpoint of the minimalist concept of democracy is considered. Next, the author considers three main alternatives to elections that are proposed in the academic literature, namely such methods of selecting the ruling elite as meritocracy, epistocracy and a lottery. It is stated that in the Russian legal literature, democracy and the representation of citizens in power are closely linked to elections, while much less attention is paid to alternative forms of representation and expression of the will of the people. The conclusion is that alternatives to elections have their own disadvantages, but they can well be used as an addition to the elections, and if used correctly, even replace elections.

As a former colonial power in Africa, Portugal has been a conspicuously neglected case in the contemporary academic literature on Europe–Africa relations. This article explores Portugal's role in European Union (EU) relations with Africa, focusing on the issue of political conditionality. The analysis considers how active Portugal has been at the EU level regarding that controversial issue and to what extent Lisbon has tried to mediate between its European partners and Africa. Taking into account the limited contributions on the topic, this article makes great use of primary sources and takes a long-term perspective. The findings show that Portugal's general stance was mainly reactive and cautious. However, Portuguese policy-makers ingeniously used intra-EU pressures towards conditionality to highlight Portugal's conciliatory position and buttress a bridging role between Europe and Africa. This study contributes to the literature on Portuguese foreign policy in the EU–Africa context and provides useful insights for other studies on smaller EU member states as well as Europe–Africa relations.

This study examines the moral and legal justification of abortion through the lens of teleological ethics, particularly utilitarianism. Employing a qualitative methodology, it analyzes classical philosophical texts, contemporary academic literature, and legal frameworks to assess how outcome-based ethical reasoning informs abortion debates. Findings indicate that utilitarian ethics support abortion access as a means to reduce suffering and enhance societal well-being, especially for marginalized populations. However, the analysis also acknowledges critiques concerning the moral status of the fetus and the limitations of purely consequentialist approaches. The study concludes that while teleological ethics provide a flexible framework for evaluating abortion, integrating deontological principles may offer a more comprehensive ethical discourse.

Purpose This paper revisits work design theory in light of rapid advancements in workplace automation, arguing that traditional models are no longer sufficient for addressing the complexities introduced by digital automation technologies (DAT). This paper aims to reposition work design as a central strategic concern for organizations navigating technological change. Design/methodology/approach This paper adopts a narrative review, drawing from contemporary academic literature and recent empirical studies, to offer reflective commentary grounded in current research. Findings Despite increasing attention to automation’s impact on job displacement, there remains a limited focus on how work design can respond to negative outcomes and promote employee engagement, innovation and retention. Originality/value This paper offers a timely call to action for human resources leaders and work design researchers. It urges a shift away from purely technical implementations of automation towards more human-centred, strategically designed work environments. The piece contributes original value by framing work design as both a challenge and an opportunity in the digital economy.

This opinion piece seeks to define and contextualise educational terms that are used, and appear to be misused, in contemporary academic literature and practice. It aims to explore the concept that these three words, open, flexible, and distance, fall into the categories of policy, mode of learning, and models of delivery. In the context in which the globaleducational community across all sectors adapts to new forms of learning, it is essential that practitioners agree on the terminology. Words have definitions, but they also have technical meanings and daily, commonplace, uses that sometimes defy those dictionary definitions. Words sometimes become symbolic, they are adopted by a specific community to cover a range of “sins”, and this use serves to normalise or induct new users into that community. The ability to twist and bend definitions to suit a specific context, to appeal to policy makers or funders, relies on some malleability, some ambiguity, of definitions. In the context of Boyer’s definition of the integration of research (Boyer, 1997), the purpose of this piece is to enable colleagues to decide how to best define and deploy existing, and validate new terminology.

The parole system in South Africa is an essential component of the correctional framework, aimed at reconciling the dual goals of criminal rehabilitation and public safety. Although rooted in the Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998, the White Paper on Corrections (2005), and international human rights norms, its efficacy is still debated. This article aims to critically assess the degree to which the South African parole system facilitates rehabilitation while ensuring community safety. The research employs a qualitative, doctrinal methodology, focussing on the examination of statutory provisions, policy frameworks, judicial rulings, and contemporary academic literature regarding parole and criminal reintegration. Additional insights are derived from comparative penological viewpoints and reports from oversight entities like the Judicial Inspectorate for Correctional Services. Research demonstrates that while parole theoretically aligns with rehabilitative and restorative justice principles, its execution is compromised by prison overcrowding, resource constraints, insufficient post-release assistance, and erratic risk evaluations. These elements foster public distrust and occasional shortcomings in preventing recidivism, particularly in prominent cases. However, evidence indicates that structured monitoring and rehabilitative programs under parole can diminish recidivism when sufficiently resourced and supported. The paper asserts that the South African parole system necessitates comprehensive reform, incorporating the use of evidence-based risk assessment instruments, fortified community corrections, and improved reintegration assistance. Its contribution to penological studies emphasises the dichotomy of parole as both a rehabilitative instrument and a contentious arena of public safety, providing avenues for realigning parole practices with constitutional and restorative justice objectives.

In the contemporary academic literature, rural population decline has generally been regarded as a long‐running and almost natural phenomenon. This paper examines the complex temporal, spatial, and cultural dynamics of the population of an inland, largely agriculturally dependent rural region, the New South Wales New England and North West region (SA4 level) from the late 1990s to the 2021 Census. It investigates the key demographic processes that have driven the region’s spatially and temporally uneven experiences of population change—including decline—over this tumultuous period, using these as portents of the regional population’s likely future trajectories. Drawing on custom‐created population estimates for the Indigenous and non‐Indigenous populations of this expansive region, the paper explores these processes and trajectories for the population as a whole, then for the non‐Indigenous and Indigenous segments. The analysis identifies that a profound ageing process is underway across the entire region, is becoming more severe over time, and is leading to natural decrease for some Shires. However, the region’s Indigenous population presents a striking contrast to the non‐Indigenous one, growing rapidly, and increasing its share of the population.

This chapter reviews the ethnographic and political histories of Tibet as well as contemporary academic literature on state-led development and social disempowerment in China’s Tibet Autonomous Region. Situating the analysis across the Tibetan Plateau regions of U-Tsang, Ngari, and the Northern Changtang grasslands, we use frameworks of critical geopolitics and border studies to show that regional geographies and distinct political, legal, and economic histories in Tibet are central to understanding recurring territorial conflicts in contemporary Highland Asia. Conceptualised as the ‘Tibetan Frontier’, we argue that the high degree of regionality and fluidity of boundary-making practices in Tibet at the turn of the 20th century is fundamental to current disagreements over postcolonial borders throughout the broader region. Examining territorial legacies of the Tibetan Frontier in contemporary contexts, we further show that protracted border conflicts between China and India are unlikely to be resolved so long as the spatial politics of Tibet remain disputed.

Premarital medical testing serves as a preventive mechanism whereby prospective couples undergo medical screening to detect genetic, infectious, and blood-transmitted diseases such as Sickle Cell Disease (SCD). This practice has become increasingly relevant in light of the rising number of children born with genetic disorders, particularly in regions with high SCD prevalence such as sub-Saharan Africa. While premarital screening has sparked debate within certain cultural and religious contexts, Islamic jurisprudence offers a compelling framework that supports such preventive health measures. This study aims to examine the legal and ethical justification of premarital genetic testing from the standpoint of Islamic law, focusing specifically on the maxim Al-Darar Yuzal (harm must be eliminated), one of the five major legal maxims (Al-Qawa’id Al-Kubra) in Islamic jurisprudence. Employing a qualitative and doctrinal research methodology, the study utilizes content analysis of classical juristic texts, contemporary academic literature, and public health data. Through this approach, the paper critically explores arguments both for and against premarital testing while highlighting the relevance of Islamic principles that prioritize the elimination of harm and the preservation of public health. The findings suggest that Islam not only permits but encourages any lawful measure aimed at safeguarding human health, provided it does not contradict the core teachings of the Shari’ah. Ultimately, the study concludes that premarital genetic testing especially for conditions like SCD is not only compatible with Islamic teachings but also aligned with the broader objectives of Shari’ah (Maqasid al-Shari’ah), particularly the protection of life and progeny. As such, both government and religious institutions should actively promote premarital screening as a responsible and preventive step toward ensuring healthy future generations.