Appraisal and comparison of contamination in potable water sources during pre, syn and post monsoon periods in Southwest Lawngtlai district, Mizoram, India

Domestic water sources such as wells, taps, and rivers are often used for drinking, cooking, and other household purposes, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas however in most places, their microbiological quality is not always ensured. In this study, 45 water samples were collected from key domestic water sources; 20 each from wells and taps, and 5 from River Benue in Girei, Nigeria following standard sampling techniques. Total aerobic bacterial count (in CFU/mL) for each sample was determined and river water had the highest average microbial count (285), followed by well water (248), and tap water had the lowest count (181). Identification of isolates involved cultural characteristics, Gram staining, motility, and biochemical tests. Bacterial species associated with the water sources were Acinetobacter sp., Aeromonas sp., Bacillus subtilis, Citrobacter, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus sp., Providencia sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Salmonella sp. and Serratia sp.. Chlorine tolerant isolates were determined after treating each sample with 9.9 mg/L (9.9 ppm) of Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at a contact time of 30 minutes. They include 13 isolates from 9 genera, viz: Acinetobacter sp., B. subtilis, Citrobacter sp., E. coli, Enterobacter sp., K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, Proteus sp. and Serratia sp. By subjecting the treatment tolerant isolates to higher concentrations of NaOCl, results indicated that high concentrations are required to neutralize the isolates with the highest bactericidal concentration observed in B. subtilis (70 ppm), and the lowest was 40 ppm observed in Serratia sp. and E. coli. The findings highlight significant bacterial contamination in water sources, some of which are pathogenic and chlorine-tolerant, emphasizing the need for proper water treatment methods, such as boiling, before consumption by residents. Stam. J. Microbiol. 2024;14(1):5-12

During the last decade, the fuel oxygenate methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) has received widespread attention as a potential threat to water quality, primarily due to leaking underground gasoline storage tanks and watercraft with two-stroke engines. In this article, we examine the annual detection frequency, number of new source detections, and concentration of MTBE detected in California's public drinking water groundwater and surface water sources from 1995 to 2002. This work builds on our previous evaluations of California's water quality monitoring database. However, it is unique in that it includes separate evaluations for groundwater and surface water sources that are of greatest concern to regulators, and which are likely being used for current public consumption. Our evaluations also include full-year data for 2002 (which have not been published previously) and an analysis of how the sampling and reported detections of MTBE vary by geographic location. We find that MTBE was generally detected (at any level) in approximately 0.5-0.9% and 0.2-0.4% of all groundwater sources assuming a one-detection and two-detection criterion, respectively. The overall detection frequency for MTBE in surface water sources is significantly higher than for groundwater sources, although these surface water detections appear to have substantially declined since 1996 (e.g., 7-9% for all surface water sources during 1996 to 1999 and 4% for all surface water sources during 2000 to 2002, assuming a one-detection criterion). The detection frequency of MTBE concentrations at or above the state drinking water standards in all drinking water sources (both groundwater and surface water sources) and the subset of drinking water sources that are likely to currently be delivered to consumers is markedly lower (and often zero). Despite the significant increase in water sampling over time, the number of new drinking water sources found to contain MTBE in California has not increased at the same rate and appears to have remained relatively stable or to have decreased since 1998. The data also show that nearly all of the 58 counties in California have routinely sampled at least some of their groundwater and surface water sources for MTBE over the last 8 years. Geographical evaluations show that MTBE has been detected (at least once) in groundwater sources in 34 counties and in surface water sources in 18 counties but has only been detected routinely (i.e., for 3 or more years) in 16 and 7 counties, respectively. Detected concentrations of MTBE are also generally below state drinking water standards, particularly for surface water sources. In short: (1) MTBE is rarely found in California groundwater or surface water sources that are of greatest concern to regulators or the public, and (2) drinking water detections of MTBE are expected to decline in the future due to the pending phase-out of MTBE and recent regulatory programs aimed at controlling gasoline releases from underground storage tanks and two-stroke-engine watercraft.

The quality of ground and surface water sources are contaminated by heavy metal discharged from industries, transport, municipal wastes, and hazardous waste sites as well as from fertilizers applied for agricultural intensification purposes and accidental oil spillages from tankers can result in a steady rise in contamination of both ground and surface water. Objective: To determine the level of heavy metal contamination in ground and surface water sources in Jimma town, Southwest Ethiopia. Method: The study was conducted in Jimma town in 2019 by applying a cross-sectional study design. A total of 20 samples were collected from Ground and surface water samples and stored in a clean polythene bottle that had been prewashed with 10% nitric acid and thoroughly rinsed with deionized water using standard methods of American Public Health Association (APHA), 2012. Heavy metal in water samples was analyzed by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. SPSS version 23 and excel software were employed for statistical analysis. A comparison of the results with the accepted international standard was carried out. Results: results for physicochemical parameters were in the range of: pH (5.9-8.71), Electrical Conductivity (83-1212 𝜇S/cm), Turbidity (0.67-5.4 NTU), and water temperature (21.9-29.8°C) and some selected heavy metals in water samples analyzed were found in the range of Pb (0.0174-0.183 mg/L), Cd (0.0029-0.031 mg/L), Cu (0.0495-0.581 mg/L), Fe (0.03-0.95 mg/L), Mn (0.00-0.55 mg/L), and Zn (0.0345-3.45 mg/L) for water sample. Conclusion: the concentrations of Pb and Cd in surface and groundwater sources were above the maximum limits recommended by WHO, USEPA, and EU. Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in ground and surface water were below the limits recommended by WHO, USEPA, and EU.

BackgroundAdequate supply of safe drinking-water remains a critical issue in most developing countries. The whole western region of Cameroon doesn’t have a sustainable continuous water supply system, which leads most people to use potentially contaminated water sources to meet their daily water needs. Previous, studies carried out in similar areas of Cameroon have highlighted the poor bacteriological quality of water sources used as drinking-water by the local populations.MethodsThis study used the Micro Biological Survey method, a rapid colorimetric test for the quantitative detection of Coliforms in water samples. 22 water sources (12 improved and 10 unimproved) were identified; 1 water sample of 50 ml was collected in sterile plastic tubes, immediately kept in a refrigerator box and transported to the laboratory for analysis. 1 ml of each sample was inoculated in the Coliforms Micro Biological Survey (Coli MBS) vials initially rehydrated with 10 ml of sterile distilled water. The Coli MBS vials were closed, shaken for about 30 s for homogenization and then incubated at 37 °C. From the initial red color of the Coli MBS vials, changes in color of the reaction vials were monitored at three different time intervals (12 h, 19 h and 24 h), corresponding to three levels of contamination.ResultsThe average distance (8.7 m) of the latrines from the nearest water source was less than the minimal recommended distance (15 m) to ovoid external contamination. The pH of water samples ranged from 5.5 to 8.3 and the maximum temperature found (26 °C) was almost at level favorable to outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as cholera. The presence of Total Coliforms was detected in 90.91% of the samples. 40% of samples were positive 12 h after the analysis beginning. High level of contamination was observed in unimproved water sources, 50% after 12 h corresponding to Total Coliforms concentration of 10 < x < 103 CFU/ml and the other samples after 19 h (Total Coliforms concentration: 1 < x < 10 CFU/ml).ConclusionThis study revealed the poor microbiological quality of water used by local populations of our study sites. There is need to conduct further qualitative microbiology studies to isolate potential germs involved in outcome of diarrheal diseases.

The quality of water is usually strongly considered as criteria for its suitability for a purpose. Important physical, chemical and bacteriological properties form the basis to judge the quality of water. To determine whether a particular water sample is of acceptable quality for drinking, it is necessary to compare its properties with the regulatory limits of certain well known and accepted standards set by organizations like World Health Organization, US Environmental Protection Agency, Nigeria International Standards etc. The focus of this project is to investigate the extent of contaminants in the available water sources and the causative agents in Ogbomoso North and South Metropolis. 100 water samples were collected through an evenly spread sample point positioning system across the study area, to give an averagely accurate analysis of the result. The Physical properties like Temperature, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids; Chemical parameters like Heavy metal concentration and Bacteriological parameters like E-Coli and T-Coli coliform count were analysed and the results were compared with regulatory limits. From the results derived, the physical parameters of tested water samples fall within the WHO standard limits. However, water samples in Ogbomoso North and South Local Government Area contain E-Coli and T-Coli concentration that exceeds the WHO standard of 0 MPN/ 100ml. Wards like Ilogbo (Papa Abede) and Ilogbo/ Arada were found to contain high concentration of Iron that exceeds the acceptable 1 mg/l limit due to the presence of a number of dumpsites and light industries. Phosphate concentration in all water samples tested exceeded the WHO and NIS standard of 5 mg/l, which is as a result of uncontrolled septic waste and fertilizer run-off. The concentration of Manganese in all water samples across the study area also exceeded the 0.2 mg/l WHO and NIS standard for potable water as a result of the unchecked Industrial activities and vehicle emission in the area. Other areas with significant pollution cases especially Sulphate concentration that exceeds the WHO regulatory limit of 250 mg/l in water samples include Osupa and Jagun, this can be attributed to the number of the dumping sites present and action of leachates in the areas. The resulting health implication of these findings was discussed. A water quality map was developed to show the varying concentration of water properties across Ogbomoso North and South Local Government Area. The study suggests waste control activities be adopted in the study area and public enlightenment schemes to protect water sources in the area, as the task of reducing the extent of contaminants in water sources in Ogbomoso North and South LGA requires the effort of the residents, government and relative organizations.

The quality of water is usually strongly considered as criteria for its suitability for a purpose. Important physical, chemical and bacteriological properties form the basis to judge the quality of water. To determine whether a particular water sample is of acceptable quality for drinking, it is necessary to compare its properties with the regulatory limits of certain well known and accepted standards set by organizations like World Health Organization, US Environmental Protection Agency, Nigeria International Standards etc. The focus of this project is to investigate the extent of contaminants in the available water sources and the causative agents in Ogbomoso North and South Metropolis. 100 water samples were collected through an evenly spread sample point positioning system across the study area, to give an averagely accurate analysis of the result. The Physical properties like Temperature, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids; Chemical parameters like Heavy metal concentration and Bacteriological parameters like E-Coli and T-Coli coliform count were analysed and the results were compared with regulatory limits. From the results derived, the physical parameters of tested water samples fall within the WHO standard limits. However, water samples in Ogbomoso North and South Local Government Area contain E-Coli and T-Coli concentration that exceeds the WHO standard of 0 MPN/ 100ml. Wards like Ilogbo (Papa Abede) and Ilogbo/ Arada were found to contain high concentration of Iron that exceeds the acceptable 1 mg/l limit due to the presence of a number of dumpsites and light industries. Phosphate concentration in all water samples tested exceeded the WHO and NIS standard of 5 mg/l, which is as a result of uncontrolled septic waste and fertilizer run-off. The concentration of Manganese in all water samples across the study area also exceeded the 0.2 mg/l WHO and NIS standard for potable water as a result of the unchecked Industrial activities and vehicle emission in the area. Other areas with significant pollution cases especially Sulphate concentration that exceeds the WHO regulatory limit of 250 mg/l in water samples include Osupa and Jagun, this can be attributed to the number of the dumping sites present and action of leachates in the areas. The resulting health implication of these findings was discussed. A water quality map was developed to show the varying concentration of water properties across Ogbomoso North and South Local Government Area. The study suggests waste control activities be adopted in the study area and public enlightenment schemes to protect water sources in the area, as the task of reducing the extent of contaminants in water sources in Ogbomoso North and South LGA requires the effort of the residents, government and relative organizations.

Distribution and risk assessment of banned and other current-use pesticides in surface and groundwaters consumed in an agricultural catchment dominated by cocoa crops in the Ankobra Basin, Ghana

Many diseases have been associated with poor drinking water quality including diseases caused by diarrheagenic pathogens, especially in developing countries where access to a consistent water supply is a problem. The objective of the study was to evaluate the health risks associated with the sources of drinking water in the Dangme West District of Ghana using E. coli as a measurement tool, aiming at ascertaining the paths leading to contamination of the water sources. A total of 464 water samples were obtained for analysis. Sampling covered a year across the dry and wet seasons in Ghana. Water samples were obtained from groundwater and surface water sources. E. coli counts were determined using the most probable number method (MPN). Disease risk assessment was carried out using the WHO drinking water risk assessment guidelines. Generally, the study revealed significantly higher E. coli counts in the wet season than in the dry season. Among the water samples analyzed, surface water, especially from the dams, was found to pose the highest disease risk as compared to the other water sources. Samples from groundwater sources, especially boreholes, posed the lowest disease risk. In conclusion, observations from the study implied that most water sources in the study district are highly polluted with bacteria pathogens beyond recommended safety guidelines. The main causes of faecal contamination in these water sources were purported to be anthropogenic. Therefore, there is a need to formulate a policy aimed at managing and improving rural water sources.

Kumba, the largest city in the Southwest Region of Cameroon, is characterized by the prevalence of waterborne diseases due to ingestion of contaminated water. Sixty-four water samples were collected from different sources including pipe-borne (PW), surface/stream (SW) and groundwater (HDW) sources as well as the catchment area (CW) in Kumba metropolis. These water samples were analyzed for physicochemical and microbiological parameters and the results compared with international standards. The results of physiochemical parameters showed that the water samples were mildly acidic, not saline and soft. The levels of some trace elements (Al, Fe, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb) in some water samples were higher than permissible limits. Water Quality Index, Contamination Index (Cd) and Trace Element Toxicity Index were used to evaluate the water samples. Results showed that most of the water sources are poor and unsafe for consumption due to high concentrations of Al, Fe, Mn and Pb. Microbiological parameters revealed that 74% of the water samples are in the class of high risk to grossly polluted. Pollution associated with the catchment area was probably the main factor controlling the quality of pipe-borne water, while that of the surface and groundwater may be attributed to geogenic and anthropogenic sources including unlined pit latrines. Water sources, especially those ingested by humans in Kumba, should be properly managed including regular treatment so as to protect the health of humans and improve the quality of life.

Multivariate linear regression model for source apportionment and health risk assessment of heavy metals from different environmental media

RADON IN GROUNDWATERS IN THE BAIKAL REGION AND TRANSBAIKALIA: VARIATIONS IN SPACE AND TIME

The health and well-being of individuals in a nation absolutely depends on the quality of water available for consumption. Therefore, this study evaluated parasitic contaminants of drinking water sources in Doma Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. A total of 48 water samples were collected from different sources (boreholes, wells and streams) from March to July 2017. The water samples were analyzed using the Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) floatation method and the samples were examined microscopically for the presences of parasites. A total of 32 (66.67%) water samples were parasitized by a trematode (Fasciola hepatica), two protozoans (Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia) and three nematodes (Trichuris trichiuria, Ascaris lumbricoides and Hookworm). The nematode group had the highest contamination rate 19 (59.38%) followed by the protozoan group 12 (37.50%) while trematode was the least with 1(3.13%). The stream source was the most contaminated in late dry and early wet seasons having 69.23% and 94.74% respectively, followed by wells which had 30.77% and 5.26% in late dry and early wet seasons respectively while boreholes had 0% contamination in both seasons. Therefore, prevalence of parasites in relation to sources of water showed a very high significant association (X2= 49.741, df = 2, P < 0.0001), while there was no significant association with seasons (X2 = 2.3438, df = 1, P = 0.1258).Result indicated high rate of parasitic contamination of drinking water sources in the study area. Hence, the need for advocacy and enlightenment of the inhabitants of the area on the importance of proper treatment of potable water.Key words: Parasites, potable water sources, seasons

This report describes the geography, geology, and ground-water resources of Norton County and northwestern Phillips County in north-central Kansas. The hydrologic and geologic information was obtained in the field during the years 1945-48 inclusive. Records for 241 wells in Norton County and 44 wells in northwestern Phillips County were collected, and 64 test holes were drilled to determine the thickness and character of the water-bearing materials. These data were utilized to plot a water-table map of the area. The outcropping rock formations were studied in the field and by aid of test-hole samples, and a geologic map and cross sections were prepared. The area covered by this report lies in the Plains Border section of The Great Plains physiographic province. It is drained by North Fork Solomon River, a tributary to Smoky Hill River, and Sappa and Prairie Dog Creeks, tributaries to Republican River. For the most part the topography is moderately fine-textured and maturely dissected, with extensive flat areas occurring along the terraces of the major valleys, and at a few places on the upland divides. The climate is subhumid, the average annual precipitation being a little more than 20 inches. In addition to a generally deep fertile soil and the ground-water supplies,, the principal mineral resources of the area are oil and gas, volcanic ash, stone, and ceramic raw materials. The oldest outcropping rock unit is the Smoky Hill chalk member of the Niobrara formation (Cretaceous), which underlies the entire area. Pierre shale (Cretaceous) overlies the Niobrara formation in northwestern Phillips County, where it has been protected from erosion by a structural downwarp. The Ogallala formation (Pliocene) overlies the Cretaceous rocks and, except along the major valleys, underlies nearly the entire area. The Ogallala formation constitutes the most widespread source of adequate well-water supplies in the area. The Sanborn formation (Pleistocene) overlies the Ogallala formation and constitutes the near-surface deposits of most of the area. The basal (Crete) member of the Sanborn occurs adjacent to major valleys and in restricted areas is an adequate source of potable ground water. The deposits underlying the prominent terrace surfaces in the three major valleys yield abundant supplies of water to wells, and alluvium is a source of ground-water in many tributary valleys. North Fork Solomon River and Sappa and Prairie Dog Creeks are permanent streams in this area; nevertheless, wells supply nearly all the water for domestic, irrigation, and municipal uses. Four cities in Norton County (Almena, Clayton, Lenora, and Norton) and one in northwestern Phillips County (Long Island) obtain their water supplies from the terrace deposits and alluvium of the major valleys. Adequate supplies of ground water are available for additional irrigation wells at many places in the terrace deposits of the major valleys, at some places in the Crete sand and gravel member of the Sanborn formation along the north side of Prairie Dog Creek, and at a few places in the Ogallala formation under the Prairie Dog-Sappa Creek divide area in western Norton County. Most other places in the area do not have adequate ground-water supplies for extensive well-water irrigation. Analyses of 45 samples of ground water are included in this report, together with a discussion of the principal chemical constituents in relation to the use and geologic occurrence of the water. Most of the ground water in the area is satisfactory for ordinary purposes, but some is sufficiently hard to require softening for special uses.

Soil environmental quality related to the residents’ life, health, and safety, has been the hotspot issues in science of ecological environment protection. Evaluating the distribution characteristics, ecological risk, and source of heavy metals in farmland is important for protecting soil resources. The agricultural area of Lianhua town, Gongcheng County, Guilin is a typical karst landform. In response to the problem of heavy metal pollution and complex sources in the soil of this area, the characteristics and sources of heavy metal pollution in the soil profiles from farmland, abandoned land, and forest were studied using the single-factor index method, the geoaccumulation index (Igeo) principal component analysis (PCA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. The results showed that: (1) that the contents of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in the soil profile of the study area were higher than that of the soil elements background values in Guangxi. The total and available forms contents of all heavy metal elements exhibited the characteristics of accumulation in the surface profile; (2) among the six heavy elements, the contents of Cd were in a moderately to heavily polluted state. The contents of Cd in some soil profiles exceeded the control standard for agricultural land soil pollution. The contents of Zn and Ni were from slightly to moderately polluted in areas with frequent agricultural activities; (3) according to the PCA and PMF model, there were three main sources of heavy metals in the study area. Among them, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Zn are related to agricultural activities; the elements As, Cd, Cr, and Hg are closely related to geological background; Pb and Zn are mainly affected by atmospheric sedimentation of transportation. Agricultural activities and natural geological background are the main contribution sources of heavy metals in soil. Human activities are the main factors that cause the accumulation of heavy metals in soil. This research has theoretical guidance and practical significance for the prevention and control of soil heavy metal pollution and the protection of farmland environmental quality in the region.

The study investigated the water supply sources in Old Umuahia semi-urban district in Abia State, Nigeria. Emphasis was on the quality and quantity of available water sources. Some socio-economic considerations such as family sizes, proximity of source, quality and quantity of water actually used per day as compared with quantity required per day were all evaluated. Water supply shortfall was hence evaluated and quantified. Different sources of water in use were evaluated. They include motorized boreholes, Springs, Streams, commercial water vendors and harvested rainwater. The study showed that the majority of residents had bread winners who were civil servants (48%) with an average family size of 5-8 people. Most people practice conjunctive water use of water combining more than one source with comparative advantages. 89% of the people depend on water boreholes for their drinking water supplies. Available hydrogeological data from the area were reviewed. The area was found to be underlain by a prolific aquifer capable of sustainably supplying the area. Water samples were collected from the different water sources and analysed for concentration of key physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Dissolve d Oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, totaldissolved solids, total hardness, chloride, salinity, total alkalinity, copper, iron, manganese, sulphate, chromium, colour and zinc. The results were compared with World Health Organisation (WHO) standards for domestic water supply. From the results, water in the area was found to be acidic with pH values ranging from 4.9 to 5.15 (mean value, 5.02). All the other physico-chemical parameters showed values that plot within the limit of acceptability of WHO standards except for two boreholes sources, two streams sources and samples from the commercial water vendors whose water samples indicated serious bacteriological contamination. Supplies from groundwater sources is of highest quality. Since the area is underlain by aquifers with excellent water yielding properties, the studyrecommended the development of water supply in the area mainly from groundwater sources. This will require additional hydrogeological studies to determine the number, location and depths of new boreholes to serve the domestic water demands of the inhabitants of the area. Existing four boreholes are grossly inadequate to meet and sustain the domestic water needs of about 8000 people who presently inhabit the area. Similarly, people should be discouraged from using the water from commercial water vendors for domestic purposes. This will drastically reducethe incidence of water-borne diseases in the area