Application of Cement-Cassava Peel Ash Mix for the Stabilisation of Marine Clay Soil: A Review

Roads are the quintessential component for the social as well as economic upliftment of a country. Our country has a total road network of greater than 60 lakh kilometers of which 79% consists of rural roads. Around 20% of land area of our country is covered with the kind of soils having low shear strength and California bearing ratio (CBR) values. The pavement which is constructed over such soils deteriorates significantly under heavy wheel load which leads to substantial enhancement in maintenance and construction costs. To overcome such situations the soil reinforcement techniques have to be resorted to as replacement and removal of soil would lead to heavy economic liability. In this work, an attempt was made to study the effects of non-woven synthetic geotextile on the strength behavior of the soil. The geotextile was placed in single as well as multiple layers from the top of mold at different depths in soil subgrade and optimum moisture content (OMC), maximum dry density (MDD), soaked CBR, and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values were determined experimentally. Multiple linear regression models were developed for predicting soaked CBR and UCS. Maximum improvement of 66% in CBR and 45% in UCS was reported when the soil sample was reinforced with double-layer geotextile (i.e., 25 mm and 50 mm).

Karewa soils are of lacustrine origin, present in the form of low flat mounds or elevated plateaus spread over a vast area. Low shear strength and high compressibility is the characteristic feature of such soils. They swell when wet, and shrink on drying, thus showing undesirable engineering behavior. The present study deals with stabilization on remolded samples of Karewa soils using Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Various soil samples were collected from different locations of Pampore area of Kashmir valley. Consistency limits, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests were performed on the soil samples. The index and engineering properties of Karewa soil were improved using OPC in varying percentages of 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5% and 15% by dry weight of soil. The test results revealed that the increase in OPC content decreased the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and increased the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. It was also seen that increase in OPC content reduced the plasticity, increased the volume stability, and increased the UCS and CBR of the soil. The optimum value of OPC was observed at 10%, beyond which the strength decreased.

Peat fires in tropical peatland causes significant damage to peatland ecology and the landscape. Peat fires are usually occurred during the regular dry season for agricultural purposes such as oil palm plantation. Peat soils is one of the problematic soils due to its high water content, low shear strength, high organic, low bearing capacity and high compressibility. Because of these problems, improvement method such as compaction and stabilization are important when the peat soils use as a soil foundation. This paper describes laboratory research done on strength for stabilized of peat to evaluate their different physical and mechanical properties mainly compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and the California bearing ratio (CBR) test. Burning test was also conducted to observe the effect of stabilization of peat soils to prevent peat fires. The stabilizing agents used were 5% lime (CaCO3) and Portland Composite Cement (PCC). Different variation of PCC was used in experiments for the optimum variation. Optimum moisture content was taken 100% based on the other research. In UCS and CBR test, the highest of strength increase occurred in variations 15% PCC were equal to 59.44% and 100.17% respectively compare than the pure peat soils. While in burning test, stabilized peat soils has a burning point and ash point much longer time to start burning and completely become ash than pure peat soils. Stabilized peat soils can increase the burning process time and not easy to fire.

In road construction activities, the use of soil as heap material is commonly practiced. Soils are heaping above soft soils aiming to increase the carrying capacity of the soft soils layer. The parameters for reference are the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) and UCS (Unconfined Compression Strength) scores. But, the test of CBR and UCS takes a long time in the process. Therefore, an approach is needed to obtain the score of CBR and UCS. Then by find out one of the parameters score, will also find out the others parameter scores. Aim to obtain the correlation between CBR and UCS scores, firstly, need to perform test in laboratory. The test conducted to soil samples from Tangkiling village, Bukit Batu district, Palangka Raya City, Central Kalimantan Province. The results showed that the correlation between UCS and CBR scores were, UCS = 0.2416, CBR – 1.2389, with R score was 0.9193. This data showed a very high correlation between UCS and CBR.

Cement, lime, and Fly Ash (FA) are the major traditional soil stabilizers. Cement production contributes 0.8-0.9 tons of carbon emissions per ton of cement, while lime production generates around 1.2 tons of CO2 per ton of cement. FA is not readily available in all regions, necessitating the exploration of alternative stabilizing agents. Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) and Sugar-Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) are waste products from cement and sugarcane production, respectively. This study investigated the use of CKD and SCBA to stabilize black cotton soil. CKD was incorporated into the soil at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% for standard Proctor compaction, consistency limits, Free Swell Index (FSI), Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS), and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) testing. The optimal CKD content based on UCS and CBR was 6%, while the optimal CKD-SCBA composite was 6% CKD and 10% SCBA. The third part of the Kenyan Road Design Manual (KRDM III) categorizes subgrades by strength based on the CBR, ranging from S1 to S6. Subgrades classified as S1 exhibit the lowest strength (CBR of 2-5%), while S6 denotes the highest strength (CBR of 30% or greater). The untreated black cotton soil, with a CBR of less than 2%, was unsuitable as a subgrade. The CKD-SCBA composite improved the soil's CBR to 16.43%, upgrading it to an S4 subgrade, which can reduce the pavement thickness and associated costs. Other enhancements included an increase in UCS from 97.5 kPa to 555.81 kPa, a reduction in the FSI from 86% to 45%, and a reduction in Plasticity Index (PI) from 26.18% to 15.26%.

Clayey soils present challenges in engineering applications due to their inherent properties, such as low shear strength, which usually limits their use in engineering applications. Stabilization of clayey soils is crucial to enhance their performance and suitability for various purposes. Utilizing waste materials like discarded tyres and tile powder as soil stabilizers presents a sustainable solution to mitigate environmental concerns while enhancing soil properties. While previous studies have explored using either crumbled rubber or tile powder independently for soil improvement, their combined effect remained largely unexplored. This study addresses this gap by investigating the synergistic potential of blending crumbled rubber and tile powder to enhance the strength and ductility of clayey soils. A series of laboratory tests were conducted to investigate the combined effect of crumbled rubber and tile powder. First, varying percentages of crumbled rubber (2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, and 10%) were mixed with the soil, and standard proctor tests, California bearing ratio (CBR) tests, and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed. Results showed optimal performance at 5.0% crumbled rubber, exhibiting the highest values for maximum dry density, CBR, and UCS. Subsequently, different percentages of tile powder (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) were added to the soil-rubber mixture (with 5% crumbled rubber). The addition of 15% tile powder to the 5% crumbled rubber mixture yielded the most significant improvements as maximum dry density (MDD) increased from 1.842 g/cm3 (raw soil) to 1.963 g/cm3, UCS increased from 0.5176 kg/cm2 (raw soil) to 2.606 kg/cm2, and CBR increased from 1.757% (raw soil) to 7.84%. The addition of crumbled rubber was found to shift the failure behaviour of the clayey soil from brittle to more ductile, indicating an enhanced ability to undergo deformation before failure. This study’s findings highlight the potential of combining crumbled rubber and tile powder as a sustainable solution for enhancing clayey soil properties, paving the way for further research into optimized mixture designs and expanded applications in geotechnical engineering.

his study investigated potential of the use of Drill Cuttings Ash (DCA) in the stabilisation of Niger Delta soils for road construction. Most of the in-situ soils encountered in the region are fine-grained and highly plastic that would require special treatment. Four soil samples were obtained and the following tests were carried out: classification, compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and Unconfined Compressive strength (UCS). Dry DCA quantities ranging 2 – 8 percentages by weight of the soil was added to the air-dried soils for the stabilisation process. They were classified as A-6 (clayey soil), A-2-6 (clayey sand), A-3 (silty fine sand), and A-4 (silty clay soil). Generically, the unstabilised soils were fine-grained having low to medium plasticity, with low shear strength. Other results showed that 6% DCA content caused improvement in the texture, plasticity, and dry density of the clayey soil, while its CBR and UCS parameters compared favourably well with the unstabilised soil values. Also, there was increase in CBR value of the clayey soil after soaking for 24 hours. DCA increased the plasticity of the clayey sand, silty fine sand, and silty clay soil, and there was no substantial improvement in their strength properties. These results showed that DCA would be useful in improving clayey soilswhich are known to be prone to excessive swelling and difficult to handle during construction especially after heavy rainfall.
 
 

Black cotton soil, which is expansive in nature, covers about 20% of land area in India. It possesses a high potential for shrinkage and swelling, and has the low bearing capacity and shear strength; hence black cotton soil is unstable under heavy loads. The typical behaviour of black cotton soil makes it difficult and dangerous to be used as a foundation material. This study characterizes the geotechnical properties of black cotton soil partially replaced with shredded tyre rubber (5–20%) by weight of the soil. The present study enumerates the effect of rubber tyre on engineering properties as well as index properties of black cotton soil. Atterberg’s limit, standard proctor test, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and California bearing ratio (CBR) test were conducted on soil sample mixed with 5, 10, 15 and 20% tyre rubber by weight. The test has clearly shown a significant improvement in the geotechnical properties of the soil. This study deals with stabilization of black cotton soil using shredded rubber sample of different proportions. Stabilization is the method employed for modifying the properties of soil to improve its performance as a civil engineering material. The main objective of this study is to increase the strength properties of black cotton soil and reduce the construction cost by introducing locally available material “Scrap Tyre”.KeywordsBlack cotton soilCalifornia Bearing Ratio (CBR)Rubber tyre shredUnconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)

The challenge posed by weak soil, characterized by low bearing capacity and shear strength, is significant in civil engineering, impacting road construction, structural foundations, and irrigation systems. Recycling non-biodegradable waste, especially glass waste, presents a promising solution for environmental sustainability and cost-effectiveness in construction. This study aims to improve the geotechnical properties of weak soils by stabilizing them with Waste Glass Powder (WGP) and exploring novel construction applications. The experimental investigations determined the optimal incorporation of glass powder into soil samples, ranging from 2% to 10% by dry weight. Geotechnical tests, including sieving analysis, Atterberg limits determination, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests, and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) assessments, were conducted to assess the effect of glass powder addition. At a 10% glass powder content, the Plasticity Limit (PL), Liquid Limit (LL), and Plasticity Index (PI) were 18.4%, 33.9%, and 15.5%, respectively. The addition of glass powder significantly improved CBR values, reaching peaks of 10.5% (soaked CBR) and 22.3% (unsoaked CBR). Moreover, UCS increased to 135.6 kN/m2 with 8% glass powder, decreasing slightly to 120.8 kN/m2 with 10% glass powder. These findings highlight waste glass as a viable additive for enhancing the engineering properties of weak soils, promoting sustainable construction practices.

The stabilization of expansive soils is a critical concern in geotechnical engineering, as these soils often exhibit poor mechanical properties, leading to issues such as high plasticity, low shear strength, and significant swelling and shrinkage behavior. The increasing demand for sustainable construction materials has prompted the exploration of industrial byproducts as effective soil stabilizers. This study investigates the influence of marble dust, a waste material from the marble industry, and molasses, an agricultural byproduct, on the geotechnical properties of expansive soil by conducting laboratory testing. Several key laboratory tests, including differential free swell, Atterberg limits, modified Proctor test, unconfined compressive strength, California bearing ratio, pH, and electric conductivity, were conducted to assess the effect of varying percentages of marble dust and molasses alone and in combination with each other on geotechnical characteristics of expansive soil. The results of laboratory testing revealed that the addition of marble dust (MD) and molasses (M) significantly reduced the differential free swell, liquid limit, and plasticity index of expansive soil (S) and nearly eliminated swelling potential with a combination of 15% MD and 6%. Also, a combination of S: MD:M:: 81:15:6 transformed the soil from high to low plasticity, making it suitable for subgrade applications. The maximum dry density was also found to be improved, reaching a value of 1.922 g/cc at an optimum moisture content (OMC) of 10.6% for the above combination. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests showed a 124% increase in strength after 28 days, with a soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of 15.28% for S: MD:M:: 81:15:6 mixture. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis indicated that MD densified the soil structure, while molasses improved particle bonding. Additionally, pH and electrical conductivity tests revealed increased soil alkalinity from MD, balanced by molasses' acidity.

Land is the foundation for construction. Foundation is the lowest part of a construction, serves to channel the load directly from the construction structure to the soil layer at underneath it. Soils that have bad properties are very unfavorable if used for something construction, especially for highway pavement. The way to increase the carrying capacity of clay soil is to do soil stabilization efforts, that is, using roadbooster as a stabilizing chemical and is expected to improve the nature of the clay and meets the requirements for road pavement materials. In this study will stabilization of the clay soil of Tumbang Rungan Village Palangka Raya with the main parameters which is used as a research reference, namely California Bearing Ratio (CBR) immersion and Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS). Based on the results of testing the clay soil of Tumbang Rungan Village, Palangka Raya, the data were obtained: Original ground immersion CBR 7.89%, CBR immersion 0% roadbooster 76%, CBR 4% immersion roadbooster 40.85%, CBR immersion 8% roadbooster 27.08%, UCS original soil 0.56 kg / cm2, UCS 0% roadbooster 7.30 kg / cm2, UCS 4% roadbooster 7.40 kg / cm2, and UCS 8% roadbooster 8.30 kg / cm2. From the CBR data, you can see the value The highest CBR is when mixing 0% roadbooster or without additional roadbooster, while the highest UCS value lies in mixing 8% roadbooster.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is the ratio between load penetration of a substance against a standard material with the depth and penetration of the same speed. While Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS) is the amount of axial load per unit area at the time of the test specimen to collapse or when the axial strain reaches 20%. This study aimed to compare the CBR and UCS clay stabilized sand and cement for the pavement. The results showed that the CBR value increases, the value rises with increasing UCS cement mix. Then when the stabilization of clay with a mixture of 12% sand and 10% cement values obtained UCS at 9.06 kg/cm2 and CBR of 66% thus, stabilization of clay Bukit Rawi qualify for base down the highway because of the value of UCS 9.06 kg/cm2 > UCS 6 kg/cm2 and CBR of 66% > 20%. UCS and CBR rise in value is due to that the addition of semen into adhesive media when it reacts with water. Media adhesive is then solidified and formed a hard mass so it would hold weight.

Peat generally found in thick layers in limited areas such as Urmia Lake, Iran has low shear strength and high compressive deformation. Therefore, an appropriate soil improvement method is required. This paper presents an experimental study of the stabilisation of Urmia Lake peat on the Urmia–Tabriz highway, 7·8 km to the east of Urmia city in Iran. A type of fly ash (artificial pozzolan) and two types of volcanic ashes (natural pozzolans) were used in this investigation. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests were conducted on stabilised mixtures and untreated soil samples after 3 and 7 d of curing. According to the obtained results, the UCS of peat can be increased by using both the fly ash and the volcanic ash, but the amount of strength increase depends on the organic content, water content, stabiliser content and its particle size. Furthermore, the CBR test showed that the filling property of the stabiliser is as useful as its pozzolanic activity in increasing the bearing capacity of peat in road constructions.

Stabilization of Expansive Soil Using Eko Soil Enzyme For Highway Embankment

Soil with a high shrinkage value flowers, water affects the physical and mechanical behavior of soil (Das, 1994). Expansive clays generally have less favorable properties such as dry density ( d) low maximum, capacity / California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is low, low shear strength, and flowers shrinkage (Swelling) high. Nature is what causes the often damaged pavement repair is often done even if the pavement structure. Condition of roads in the Spring Mulyo also experienced the same thing that is fast though damage is often done to improve the road surface layer. To overcome these problems one way or the method used is to improve the quality of the original soil (stabilization). The study was conducted to find out more about the influence of lime and sand stabilization material to the amount of soil bearing capacity and CBR. Laboratory testing includes testing the soil compaction and CBR. The percentage increase varied from 5% sand, 10%, and 15%. While the addition of lime percentage varies from 5%, 10% and 15%. In this study indicates that the addition of lime and sand to clay soil has a tendency to increase the density of the soil, soil CBR value well in conditions without a bath or a bath. The optimum condition occurs in a mixture of clay with 10% limestone and 15% sand with a CBR value 9.08% with the soaked and the CBR value of 20.06% with unsoaked