Aohata <i>Kuchidoke Frozen</i>: Exploring the Development of a Unique-Textured Frozen Fruit

BackgroundApple fruit develop over a period of 150 days from anthesis to fully ripe. An array representing approximately 13000 genes (15726 oligonucleotides of 45–55 bases) designed from apple ESTs has been used to study gene expression over eight time points during fruit development. This analysis of gene expression lays the groundwork for a molecular understanding of fruit growth and development in apple.ResultsUsing ANOVA analysis of the microarray data, 1955 genes showed significant changes in expression over this time course. Expression of genes is coordinated with four major patterns of expression observed: high in floral buds; high during cell division; high when starch levels and cell expansion rates peak; and high during ripening. Functional analysis associated cell cycle genes with early fruit development and three core cell cycle genes are significantly up-regulated in the early stages of fruit development. Starch metabolic genes were associated with changes in starch levels during fruit development. Comparison with microarrays of ethylene-treated apple fruit identified a group of ethylene induced genes also induced in normal fruit ripening. Comparison with fruit development microarrays in tomato has been used to identify 16 genes for which expression patterns are similar in apple and tomato and these genes may play fundamental roles in fruit development. The early phase of cell division and tissue specification that occurs in the first 35 days after pollination has been associated with up-regulation of a cluster of genes that includes core cell cycle genes.ConclusionGene expression in apple fruit is coordinated with specific developmental stages. The array results are reproducible and comparisons with experiments in other species has been used to identify genes that may play a fundamental role in fruit development.

The response of unpollinated ovary explants ofPisum sativum L. cv. Alaska No. 7 to several plant growth regulators and nutrients has been studied. Explants consisted of a segment of stem and an emasculated flower with or without the adjacent leaf. They were made on the day equivalent to anthesis and were cultured in a liquid medium. Growth regulators were applied either in the solution or directly to the ovaries. Giberellic acid (GA3) in the presence of sucrose, but not indole-3-acetic acid or N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl)-adenine (2iP), induced fruit set and development of parthenocarpic fruits, the final length of these being a function of the intensity of the GA3 treatment. The capacity of ovaries to respond fully to GA3 was not lost after incubation of explants in water or 50 mM sucrose for 1 day and was similar in explants made between the day of anthesis and 3 days later. Limited growth was obtained with 100 mM sucrose alone but this effect was counteracted by 2′-isopropyl-4′-(trimethyl ammonium chloride)-5′-methylphenyl piperidine-1-carboxylate (AMO-1618). This inhibitor was ineffective when GA3 was applied to the ovary. The development of the fruit was proportional to the length of the segment of stem up to 5 cm. The presence of the leaf in the explant enhanced the development of the fruit. These results indicate that a gibberellin is necessary for setting and development of fruits from cultured ovaries and that this effect depends on an appropriate source of nutrients. The course of development of parthenocarpic fruits on explants was similar to that of seeded fruits on the intact plant. The cultured pea ovary systemoffers convenient means to investigate the role of gibberellins and nutrients in fruit set and development.

Korla fragrant pear (Pyrus sinkiangensis Yü) fruit development involves complex physiological and biochemical processes; however, few data are available at the proteomic and metabolomic levels, which would be helpful for understanding the molecular mechanisms of fruit and quality development. Here, Korla fragrant pear was investigated across three stages, namely, early development (5 weeks after flower blooming, WAF), middle development (10WAF), and near ripening (15WAF), via tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling technology and ultra-performance liquid chromatography‒tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC‒MS/MS). Through proteomic and metabolomic analyses, we identified a total of 8487 proteins expressed during pear fruit development, and 3762 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were characterized at three fruit development stages. Moreover, 27 soluble sugars and 43 organic acids were found to accumulate differentially in the fruit at different developmental stages. The expression of proteins related to sugar metabolism and accumulation increased with increasing fruit development stage, which was consistent with the trend in soluble sugar content during fruit development. All 6 disaccharides, including cellobiose (Cel), lactose (Lac), maltose (Mal), trehalose (Tre), phenylglucoside (Phe) and sucrose (Suc), detected in this study were present at low levels in the early stages of fruit development but accumulated in large amounts from 15 WAF to 20 WAF, which may explain the high sweetness of the ripe Korla fragrant pear. In addition, The low organic acid levels during fruit development may explain the low organic acid content of Korla fragrant pear. Thus, our proteomic and metabolomic analyses reveal the molecular basis for the high sweetness and the low organic acidity of Korla fragrant pears.

Physical and cellular structure changes of Rastali banana ( Musa AAB) during growth and development

Changes in chemical composition of guava fruits during development and ripening

Fruit growth and development are physiological processes controlled by several internal and external factors. This complex regulatory mechanism comprises a series of events occurring in a chronological order over a growing season. Understanding the underlying mechanism of fruit development events, however, requires consideration of the events occurring prior to fruit development such as flowering, pollination, fertilization, and fruit set. Such events are interrelated and occur in a sequential order. Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing technology in conjunction with improved statistical and computational methods have empowered science to identify some of the major molecular components and mechanisms involved in the regulation of fruit growth and have supplied encouraging successes in associating genotypic differentiation with phenotypic observations. As a result, multiple approaches have been developed to dissect such complex regulatory machinery and understand the genetic basis controlling these processes. These methods include transcriptomic analysis, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) mapping, whole-genome approach, and epigenetics analyses. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the molecular, genomic and epigenetics perspective of apple fruit growth and development that defines the final fruit size and provides a detailed analysis of the mechanisms by which fruit growth and development are controlled. Though the main emphasis of this article is on the molecular, genomic and epigenetics aspects of fruit growth and development, we will also deliver a brief overview on events occurring prior to fruit growth.

Fruit development is a complex yet tightly regulated process. The developing fruit undergoes phases of cell division and expansion followed by numerous metabolic changes leading to ripening. Plant hormones are known to affect many aspects of fruit growth and development. In addition to the five classic hormones (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene) a few other growth regulators that play roles in fruit development are now gaining recognition. Exogenous application of various hormones to different stages of developing fruits and endogenous quantifications have highlighted their importance during fruit development. Information acquired through biochemical, genetic and molecular studies is now beginning to reveal the possible mode of hormonal regulation of fruit development at molecular levels. In the present article, we have reviewed studies revealing hormonal control of fruit development using tomato as a model system with emphasis on molecular genetics.

Litchi chinensis, a crucial tropical and subtropical fruit tree in southern China, is widely appreciated for its distinctive flavor, high nutritional value, and significant economic impact. The bZIP (basic leucine zipper) gene family plays an essential role in regulating key biological functions during plant growth and development. In this study, we performed a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis of the bZIP gene family in litchi to systematically elucidate its molecular characteristics and functional properties. A total of 55 bZIP gene family members were identified, with the encoded proteins containing between 129 and 845 amino acid residues and theoretical isoelectric points (pI) ranging from 4.85 to 10.23. Protein-protein interaction network analysis revealed that 46 proteins exhibited interaction relationships. Phylogenetic analysis classified these genes into 13 distinct subgroups (A-K, M, and S). Chromosomal localization analysis indicated that bZIP gene family members were successfully mapped to 15 chromosomes. Intraspecific collinearity analysis identified 39 segmental duplication events, while interspecific and single-gene collinearity analyses suggested evolutionary conservation, with only a few genes exhibiting duplication or loss events. Cis-acting element analysis revealed a total of 213 elements associated with growth and development, which may play an important role in fruit development regulation. The results of differential gene expression, related to fruit development across different litchi cultivars, tissues, and flowering stages, combined with qRT-PCR validation, suggest that LITCHI017015.m1 and LITCHI004463.m1 may be involved in the early regulation of fruit development, while LITCHI018843.m1 may play a regulatory role during the later stages of fruit development. These findings provide a strong theoretical foundation for understanding the roles of bZIP genes in litchi fruit growth and development, and lay the groundwork for further functional studies. This study has potential application value in litchi fruit development and genetic improvement.

Concentrations of the macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) and micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) in the fruit peel and pulp from grapefruit cv. Star Ruby fruits were estimated at monthly intervals during fruit development. The general order of abundance of the macronutrients was Ca > K > N > Mg > P in the fruit peel and K > N > Ca > P > Mg in the fruit pulp. Similarly, the abundance of the micronutrients followed the order Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn in the fruit peel and Fe > Zn > Cu > Mn in the fruit pulp. The concentrations of most elements in the fruit peel and pulp decreased during fruit development at 120–210 DAFS. Contents of N and P in the fruit peel decreased from fruit set to fruit maturity. However, both nutrients showed a small rise in concentration towards the end of sampling. Ca content in the fruit pulp decreased up to 180 DAFS and then increased towards maturity. Mn concentrations were relatively constant during fruit development, while there was decrease in concentrations of Zn and Cu in the fruit peel. Overall, the K, Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn level was higher in the fruit peel and the N, P, Zn and Cu level was higher in the fruit pulp. These results provide important data on macronutrient and micronutrient changes during fruit growth and development, emphasizing that grapefruit can be a good source of minerals.

Biochemical and physical changes in fruits of four guava cultivars during growth and development

This study assessed the effects of auxin analog, para-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (pCPA), on fruit set and development in Micro-Tom tomato (TOMJPF00001) via phenotypic, biochemical, metabolomic, and transcriptomic analyses. pCPA treatment significantly (p < 0.05) reduced floral abscission, increased fruit set and yield, while impacting fruit morphology, ripening, sugar content, organoleptic properties, and phytohormone profiles. Metabolomic profiling revealed 836 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs). Among these, several phenylpropanoid-related DAMs (isoferulic acid, 6-methylcoumarin, naringenin, hesperetin 5-O-glucoside, quercetin, and dihydrokawain) were upregulated in immature green, mature green, and breaker fruits, but downregulated in red ripe fruits following pCPA application. Transcriptome analysis yielded 35,501 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 740 novel genes, with growth stage-specific expression patterns observed in phenylpropanoid, carotenoid, and flavonoid biosynthetic pathways. Particularly, pCPA treatment downregulated chitinase (Soly04g072000.3) and acidic endochitinase (Soly05g050130.3), potentially enhancing fruit firmness through cell wall stabilization. Reduced accumulation of alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase (Soly10g077080.2) and a UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase family protein (Soly06g069550.1) further supported this observation. In red ripe fruits, pCPA decreased organic acids (malic and citric acids), sugars (fructose, glucose and sucrose), soluble solids (TSS/brix), amino acids (aspartic acid, phenylalanine, valine) and nucleotide (uracil, cytosine) levels, correlating with altered sensory attributes. pCPA also influenced lipid biosynthesis in mature green fruits and consistently downregulated sucrose across all developmental stages, suggesting impacts on carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, pCPA treatment altered the expression of genes related to carbohydrate metabolism, including beta-amylase (Soly08g007130.3), ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (Soly07g056140.3), and beta-glucosidase (Soly11g071640.2). pCPA-induced alterations in fruit development were correspondingly susceptible to alternative splicing patterns. These findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying pCPA-induced changes in tomato fruit set and development, offering valuable information for optimizing horticultural breeding practices and strategies.

Fruit growth is a coordinated, complex interaction of cell division, differentiation and expansion. Gibberellin (GA) involvement in the reproductive events is an important aspect of GA effects. Perennial fruit-trees such as plum (Prunus salicina L.) have distinct features that are economically important and provide opportunities to dissect specific GA mechanisms. Currently, very little is known on the molecular mechanism(s) mediating GA effects on fruit development. Determination of bioactive GA content during plum fruit ontogeny revealed that GA1 and GA4 are critical for fruit growth and development. Further, characterization of several genes involved in GA-signalling showed that their transcriptional regulation are generally GA-dependent, confirming their involvement in GA-signalling. Based on these results, a model is presented elucidating how the potential association between GA and other hormones may contribute to fruit development. PslGID1 proteins structure, Y2H and BiFC assays indicated that plum GA-receptors can form a complex with AtDELLA-repressors in a GA-dependent manner. Moreover, phenotypical-, molecular- and GA-analyses of various Arabidopsis backgrounds ectopically expressing PslGID1 sequences provide evidence on their role as active GA-signalling components that mediate GA-responsiveness. Our findings support the critical contribution of GA alone or in association with other hormones in mediating plum fruit growth and development.

Proper flower development is essential for sexual reproductive success and the setting of fruits and seeds. The availability of a high quality genome sequence for pineapple makes it an excellent model for studying fruit and floral organ development. In this study, we sequenced 27 different pineapple floral samples and integrated nine published RNA-seq datasets to generate tissue- and stage-specific transcriptomic profiles. Pairwise comparisons and weighted gene co-expression network analysis successfully identified ovule-, stamen-, petal- and fruit-specific modules as well as hub genes involved in ovule, fruit and petal development. In situ hybridization confirmed the enriched expression of six genes in developing ovules and stamens. Mutant characterization and complementation analysis revealed the important role of the subtilase gene AcSBT1.8 in petal development. This work provides an important genomic resource for functional analysis of pineapple floral organ growth and fruit development and sheds light on molecular networks underlying pineapple reproductive organ growth.

Characterization of growth and development of pumpkin cv Mini Jack fruits

The development of flowers, fruits, and seeds of calamansi, from initiation to commercial maturity, is described in terms of time intervals. This study provides the morphological ontology of calamansi fruit, a prerequisite for crop breeding program. Sections of the flowers, fruits and seeds were stained with 1% safranin solution and examined under a dissecting microscope. The developmental phases can be grouped into 9, 3 and 4 in floral, fruit and seed, respectively, with distinct morphological events. The time for the flower to reach anthesis from bud formation was 17 to 23 days. The development of the fruit took 78 to 84 days from anthesis to commercial maturity. The development of the fruit from flower bud formation to commercial maturity took 94 to 101 days. During this period, the ovule development became evident on the 7th day from the flower bud formation. On the 59th day, the zygotic embryo became visible. On the 73rd day, the somatic embryo became distinct, and the endosperm tissue became gummy. On the 94th to 101th day, when the fruit reached commercial maturity, the somatic embryos occupy the whole sac and the peel became smooth and shiny. The results imply that cross-pollination can be accomplished before 17 to 23 days from the flower bud formation. An Immature fruit at 59 to 73 days from flower formation is an appropriate fruit-age to obtain the zygote, the nucellus and the endosperm tissues for breeding through plant tissue culture.