Abstract
Until recently, fermentation was the only processing used to improve the functionality of wheat germ. The release of 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone (DMBQ) from hydroquinone glycosides during the fermentation process is considered a marker of quality control. Here, we treated wheat germ extract with citric acid (CWG) to release DMBQ and examined the anti-inflammatory activity of this extract using a lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophage model. Treatment of wheat germ with citric acid resulted in detectable release of DMBQ but reduced total phenolic and total flavonoid contents compared with untreated wheat germ extract (UWG). CWG inhibited secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-12 and the synthesis of cyclooxygenase-2, while UWG only decreased IL-12 production. CWG and UWG induced high levels of anti-inflammatory IL-10 and heme oxygenase-1. CWG specifically inhibited phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 and p38 kinase at 15 min after LPS stimulation. Our study showed that citric acid treatment enhanced the anti-inflammatory activity of wheat germ extract.
Highlights
Wheat germ accounts for about 3% of the wheat grain and, despite its abundance of nutrients, is removed during the milling process [1]
The aim of this study is to process wheat germ with citric acid, which is a strong, edible acid used in food applications, and evaluate the anti-inflammatory properties of citric acid-treated wheat germ extract (CWG) and untreated wheat germ extract (UWG) using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages
Since DMBQ is used as a quality marker of fermented wheat germ extract, we determined the amount of DMBQ in the extracts
Summary
Wheat germ accounts for about 3% of the wheat grain and, despite its abundance of nutrients, is removed during the milling process [1]. Wheat germ contains α-linolenic acid (0.53%), sulfur containing amino acids (1.2%) such as glutathione, fibers (17.7%) such as lignins, oligosaccharides, and phytic acid, minerals (2.51%), and bioactive compounds such as tocopherols (0.02%), carotenoids,. The presence of unsaturated fatty acids and oxidative and hydrolytic enzymes in wheat germ leads to rancidity, which makes preservation difficult [1]. Wheat germ contains antinutritive factors such as raffinose, which is metabolized by gas-producing bacteria, and phytic acid, which interferes with mineral absorption [3]. Animals fed wheat germ agglutinin in high concentration were reported to develop hyperplastic and hypertrophic growth of the small intestines, hypertrophic growth of the pancreas, and thymus atrophy [4]. Processing is required to stabilize or increase the nutritional value of wheat germ
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