Anthropology in Action in Vanuatu

The increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events resulting from climate change have led to grid outages and other negative consequences. To ensure the resilience of buildings which serve as primary shelters for occupants, resilient strategies are being developed to improve their ability to withstand these extreme events (e.g., building upgrades and renewable energy generators and storage). However, a crucial step towards creating a resilient built environment is accurately estimating building performance during such conditions using historical extreme climate change-induced weather events. To conduct Building Performance Simulation (BPS) in extreme conditions, such as weather events induced by climate change, it is essential to utilize Actual Meteorological Year (AMY) weather files instead of Typical Meteorological Year (TMY) files. AMY files capture the precise climatic conditions during extreme weather events, enabling accurate simulation of such scenarios. These weather files provide valuable data that can be used to assess the vulnerabilities and resilience of buildings to extreme weather events. By analyzing past events and their impacts using BPS tools, we can gain insights into the specific weaknesses and areas that require improvement. This approach applies to both existing buildings needing climate change-resilient retrofits and new building designs that must be compatible with future climatic conditions. Moreover, the intensification and frequency increase of these extreme weather events makes developing adaptation and resilient-building measures imperative. This involves understanding the potential losses that households may experience due to the intensification of extreme events and developing farsighted coping strategies and climate-proof resilient-building initiatives. However, addressing the knowledge gap caused by the absence of an AMY weather file dataset of extreme events is essential. This will allow for accurate BPS during past extreme climate change-induced weather events. To fill this gap, this article introduces a comprehensive .epw format weather file dataset focusing on historical extreme weather events in Canada. This collection encompasses a diverse array of past extreme climate change occurrences in various locations, with potential for future expansion to include additional locations and countries. This dataset enables energy simulations for different types of buildings and considers a diverse range of historical weather conditions, allowing for better estimation of thermal performance.

BACKGROUND: Island communities such as Puerto Rico (PR) are profoundly impacted by climate extremes. Patients with chronic disease, particularly cancer, have unique needs and challenges in the aftermath of extreme weather events. Understanding cancer patients’ barriers, knowledge, risks, and vulnerabilities are essential to develop equitable adaptation strategies. This research aims to investigate the perceptions and experiences of cancer patients associated with extreme weather events over the past 10 years in Puerto Rico (PR). METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study via survey questionnaires (April 22, 2023-June 8, 2023) among adults aged ≥21 years from Puerto Rico who are cancer patients/survivors (n=207). A total of 23 questions listed on the survey were used to collect information on variables of interest which included demographic characteristics, information on extreme weather event experiences, and attitude towards climate change. Using the data collected, descriptive statistics were used to describe the study population and multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate the associations of interest (IRB approval # 2023-04-101). RESULTS: The average age of individuals recruited is 56.3 years ±13.5 SD, 79.7% are female, 65.2% reported having additional chronic diseases, and 85.0% have more than a high-school education. Regarding extreme weather events, 99% of cancer patients and survivors reported floods, including coastal, fluvial, and urban floods, impacted their communities, 76% reported tropical cyclones impacted their residences and communities, and 72% reported extreme heat impacted both their residences and communities in the last 10 years. Additionally, the most common problems encountered in the aftermath of these extreme weather events were water (88.4%) and electricity service interruption (91.4%), as well as water (88.9%) and electricity service interruption (77.1%). Most participants reported feeling very and extremely worried about their health in the face of climate change (75.0%) and feeling concerned about climate change (85.0%). After adjusting for age, sex, and education, logistic regression models showed that participants with more than one cancer type were more likely to be worried about their health in the face of climate change (OR=2.40,95% CI=1.06-5.35). CONCLUSION: Study findings highlight the burden of extreme weather events and the problems encountered in the aftermath of such events on cancer patients in Puerto Rico. This population expresses concern and worry about climate change and their health, respectively. This information is important for cancer control and emphasizes the need for targeted interventions and management strategies to remove detrimental and avoidable impacts on cancer populations. Citation Format: Jimena Perez, Pablo A. Méndez-Lázaro, Fabiola A. Rivera-Gastón, Ana P. Ortiz. Assessing the impact of extreme climate weather events on cancer patients in Puerto Rico: A cross-sectional study [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 16th AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2023 Sep 29-Oct 2;Orlando, FL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2023;32(12 Suppl):Abstract nr A114.

An assessment of long-term changes in mortalities due to extreme weather events in India: A study of 50 years’ data, 1970–2019

This study examined the trend in extreme weather event related mortality reported in India during 2001–14 and explored the regional, age and sex differentials in such fatalities. We used age and sex-segregated data on the number of accidental deaths by natural causes released by Government of India under the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy. Various extreme weather events were grouped into five broad categories: cold wave, extreme precipitation, heat wave, lightning, and tropical cyclone. During 2001–14, 25% of all accidental deaths due to natural causes happened as a result of extreme weather events. Deaths due to extreme precipitation and tropical cyclones declined over time, whereas increasing trend was observed for lightning, and extreme temperature conditions. Most of the extreme weather event induced deaths were due to lightning, followed by extreme precipitation and temperature extremes. The burden of death was highest in the central part of India. States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal were affected the most by extreme weather events. More males and older population died than their counterparts. Findings suggest that people are adaptive to some extreme weather events such as cold wave and cyclones; whereas adaptation and coping with the heat wave and extreme precipitation seems to be less. Building awareness on the adaptive mechanisms to different extremes and a community-centered alert system can help in reducing fatalities due to extreme weather events.

During extreme events such as tropical cyclones, the precision of sensors used to sample the meteorological data is vital to feed weather and climate models for storm path forecasting, quantitative precipitation estimation, and other atmospheric parameters. For this reason, periodic data comparison between several sensors used to monitor these phenomena such as ground-based and satellite instruments, must maintain a high degree of correlation in order to issue alerts with an accuracy that allows for timely decision making. This study presents a cross-evaluation of the radar reflectivity from the dual-frequency precipitation radar (DPR) onboard the Global Precipitation Measurement Mission (GPM) and the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) Next-Generation Radar (NEXRAD) ground-based instrument located in the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, USA, to determine the correlation degree between these two sensors’ measurements during extreme weather events and normal precipitation events during 2015–2019. GPM at Ku-band and Ka-band and NEXRAD at S-band overlapping scanning regions data of normal precipitation events during 2015–2019, and the spiral rain bands of four extreme weather events, Irma (Category 5 Hurricane), Beryl (Tropical Storm), Dorian (Category 1 hurricane), and Karen (Tropical Storm), were processed using the GPM Ground Validation System (GVS). In both cases, data were classified and analyzed statistically, paying particular attention to variables such as elevation angle mode and precipitation type (stratiform and convective). Given that ground-based radar (GR) has better spatial and temporal resolution, the NEXRAD was used as ground-truth. The results revealed that the correlation coefficient between the data of both instruments during the analyzed extreme weather events was moderate to low; for normal precipitation events, the correlation is lower than that of studies that compared GPM and NEXRAD reflectivity located in other regions of the USA. Only Tropical Storm Karen obtained similar results to other comparative studies in terms of the correlation coefficient. Furthermore, the GR elevation angle and precipitation type have a substantial impact on how well the rain reflectivity correlates between the two sensors. It was found that the Ku-band channel possesses the least bias and variability when compared to the NEXRAD instrument’s reflectivity and should therefore be considered more reliable for future tropical storm tracking and tropical region precipitation estimates in regions with no NEXRAD coverage.

In response to the intensification of global warming, extreme weather events, such as tropical cyclones (TCs) and cold waves (CWs) have become increasingly frequent near the eastern Guangdong coast, significantly affecting the structure and material transport of coastal waters. Based on nearshore-measured and remote sensing reanalysis data in the winter of 2011 and summer of 2012 on the eastern Guangdong coast, this study analyzed the nearshore hydrodynamic evolution process, influencing mechanism, and marine environmental effects under the influence of TCs and CWs, and further compared the similarities and differences between the two events. The results revealed significant seasonal variations in the hydrological and meteorological elements of the coastal waters, which were disrupted by the passage of TCs and CWs. The primary influencing factors were TC track and CW intensity. The current structure changed significantly during the TCs and CWs, with the TC destroying the original upwelling current and the CW affecting the prevailing northeastward current. Wind is one of the major forces driving nearshore hydrodynamic processes. According to the synchronous analysis of research data, the TC-induced water level rise is primarily attributed to the combined effects of wind stress curl and the Ekman effect, whereas the water level rise associated with CW is primarily linked to the Ekman effect. The water transport patterns during the TC and CW differed, with transport concentrated on the right side of the TC track and within the coastal strong-wind zones, respectively. Additionally, the temporal frequency domain of wavelet analysis highlighted the distinct nature of TC and CW signals, with 1–3 d and 4–8 d, respectively, and with TC signals being short-lived and rapid compared to the more sustained CW signals. This study enhances our understanding of the response of coastal hydrodynamics to extreme weather events on the eastern Guangdong coast, and the results can provide references for disaster management and protection of nearshore ocean engineering under extreme events.

Climatic changes lead to many extreme weather events throughout the globe. These extreme weather events influence our behavior, exposing us to different environmental conditions, such as poor indoor quality. Poor indoor air quality (IAQ) poses a significant concern in the modern era, as people spend up to 90% of their time indoors. Ventilation influences key IAQ elements such as temperature, relative humidity, and particulate matter (PM). Children, considered a vulnerable group, spend approximately 30% of their time in educational settings, often housed in old structures with poorly maintained ventilation systems. Extreme weather events lead young students to stay indoors, usually behind closed doors and windows, which may lead to exposure to elevated levels of air pollutants. In our research, we aim to demonstrate how real-time monitoring of air pollutants and other environmental parameters under extreme weather is important for regulating the indoor environment. A study was conducted in a school building with limited ventilation located in an arid region near the Red Sea, which frequently suffers from high PM concentrations. In this study, we tracked the indoor environmental conditions and air quality during the entire month of May 2022, including an extreme outdoor weather event of sandstorms. During this month, we continuously monitored four classrooms in an elementary school built in 1967 in Eilat. Our findings indicate that PM2.5 was higher indoors (statistically significant) by more than 16% during the extreme event. Temperature was also elevated indoors (statistically significant) by more than 5%. The parameters’ deviation highlights the need for better indoor weather control and ventilation systems, as well as ongoing monitoring in schools to maintain healthy indoor air quality. This also warrants us as we are approaching an era of climatic instability, including higher occurrence of similar extreme events, which urge us to develop real-time responses in urban areas.

In Australia, wheat production occurs on over 13 million hectares, producing on average 19 million tonnes of wheat per year. Extreme weather events, such as frost and heat shock (short period of very high temperatures (>35°C)), can reduce wheat yields and represent a substantial management challenge. Damage due to frost and heat shock is greatest at ear emergence and around anthesis causing significant reductions in grain number and yield potential. Heat shock can also significantly reduce grain weight during the grain fill period when the risk of heat is greatest. Paddock-based crop models currently used to simulate crop production do not adequately account for the impact of extreme weather events such as frost and heat shock on yield components. While it is feasible to construct crop modules which capture this impact by extreme short term weather events, we felt it was important to quantify the frequency and spatial extent of the problem. This was important in determining whether the frequency and extent of potential grain losses from extreme weather events warranted the inclusion of added parameter input complexity within crop models. By taking into account the interactions between climate and crop phenology we were able to categorise areas as frequently affected by either frost or heat shock, those areas affected by both heat and frost and finally those areas which were rarely affected by either. Strategies to reduce the risks of extreme events will potentially be different for each of these regions. This paper investigates the spatial extent of where there is potential for improvements to the grains industry by having crop models which account for extreme heat and frost impacts linked to the key phenological crop stages. By incorporating phenological crop development, initiated by the autumn-break our analysis has established the actual frequency of overlap between extreme events and key phenological stages each year. This is important in determining the value of developing heat and frost modules to incorporate into crop models. To quantify the risk frequency of extreme heat and frost events across southern Australia's wheat growing regions the Catchment Analysis Tool (CAT, DEPI Victoria) was used. The study area (ca. 68 million hectares) incorporated agricultural land within the 200-1000 mm annual rainfall region and was significantly larger than the actual area sown to wheat annually. Two key periods were considered (a) a two week period centered on anthesis (50% of crop flowering) and (b) grain fill, for mid-season wheat variety using 50 years historical climate data. Based on our assumption of sowing at the autumn break, the occurrence of frost around anthesis and extreme heat during the grain fill period were important both in terms of frequency of occurrence and spatial area affected. Across the study region approximately 27% (ca. 18.5 million hectares) had a greater than 1:3 chance of both frost and extreme heat occurring at key crop phenological times, while 29% of the study area was generally affected by heat only during grain fill and 32% was generally affect by frost only. Additionally 12% (ca. 8 million hectares) had a less than 1:3 frequency of both frost and extreme heat occurring at key crop phenological times.

Extreme weather events produce some of the most deadly and costly natural disasters and are a major concern of the catastrophe reinsurance industry. For example, in 1992 Hurricane Andrew caused over $20 billion (in 2002 U.S. dollars) in insured losses, the largest loss on record due to a natural disaster. In addition, 26 of the top 30 insured losses were produced by extreme weather events, mainly landfalling hurricanes and typhoons and European windstorms. A better understanding of how extreme events vary with climate would benefit the reinsurance industry and society. The Risk Prediction Initiative hosted a workshop on Weather Extremes and Atmospheric Oscillations that examined how extreme meteorological events of interest to the reinsurance industry are influenced by the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO), the Arctic Oscillation (AO), and the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). Workshop participants concluded that the stratosphere is much more relevant to predictions that aid the reinsurance industry than is generally recognized and that there is mutual interest in fostering research on the relationship between the stratospheric circulation and extreme weather events. A preliminary science–business research agenda, based on presentations and discussions during and after the workshop, highlights four areas of mutual interest to scientists and insurers. The research areas focus mainly on understanding how the QBO, AO, and MJO influence the frequency and intensity of extreme events, with particular emphasis on tropical cyclones and European windstorms. An awareness of how the catastrophe reinsurance industry operates provides insights into why specific research areas were chosen. For example, the reinsurance industry operates on the basis of annual contracts, most of which are renewed on 1 January. Thus, although skillful forecasts at any lead are of interest, skillful forecasts of extreme events are of greatest value when made in the final quarter of a calendar year.

CONTENTS I Introduction II Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events III Adaptation in the International Climate Regime IV Insurance and Adaptation in the International Climate Regime V Models for Climate Change Insurance VI Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility VII Climate Change Insurance and the Pacific Island States VIII Viability of Climate Insurance as a Long-Term Adaptation Strategy IX Conclusion I INTRODUCTION Many Small Island Developing States ('SIDS') lie only metres above sea level, making them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change in both the shorter (eg storm surge during large tropical cyclones) and longer (eg sea level rise) terms. (1) The modest ambition for mitigation (ie reduction) (2) of greenhouse gas emissions in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ('UNFCCC'), (3) Kyoto Protocol (4) and Copenhagen Accord (5) means that the prospect of avoiding an increase in mean surface temperature of less than two degrees is now very low. (6) The latest climate science suggests the Earth is on a path that will lead to a rise in mean surface temperature of between three and six degrees by 2100. (7) Unless there is a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions over coming decades, SIDS are likely to experience tropical cyclones of greater severity, disrupted rainfall patterns and sea level rise. (8) Recent extreme weather events in the Asia-Pacific region, such as Typhoon Haiyan (9) and Cyclone Ian, (10) demonstrate the significant impact of these events on SIDS. (11) The lack of success in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions has led to adaptation to climate change impacts gaining greater prominence within the United Nations climate negotiations. Adaptation to climate change has been defined as '[a]djustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities'. (12) Adaptation may take many forms, including pre-emptive action to limit damage from climate change-related events (eg implementing more ambitious building codes to make buildings more resilient to storms) and building institutions to aid recovery after a climate-related event (eg improving emergency services capacity to respond in the immediate aftermath of adverse weather events). Domestically, insurance is an established mechanism to spread financial risk of adverse events and build societal resilience. However, at an international level, the issue of climate change-related insurance has only proceeded in fits and starts. Proposals for an insurance mechanism to support the adaptation of SIDS to climate change date back to 1991. At that time, the Alliance of Small Island States ('AOSIS') proposed an international, state-based pool to provide insurance against the impacts of climate change-related sea-level rise. (13) Despite this early call by AOSIS, a climate change-related insurance mechanism was not included in either the UNFCCC or the Kyoto Protocol. In 2007 climate change-related insurance emerged again on the UNFCCC agenda as the Bali Action Plan launched international discussion on enhanced action on adaptation 'including risk sharing and transfer mechanisms such as insurance'. (14) In 2008 AOSIS made a submission under the Bali Action Plan to include an insurance mechanism as part of a broader response to climate-related loss and damage. (15) In a departure from its earlier proposal in 1991, the 2008 AOSIS submission called for insurance cover for climate change-related extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods and droughts. (16) In 2010 the Cancun Agreements also invited submissions on the development of a climate risk insurance facility, as a part of an enhanced adaptation framework, to address impacts from extreme weather events. (17) The 2012 Conference of the Parties ('COP') 18 meeting in Doha appeared to be a breakthrough in the development of institutions to assist adaptation to climate change. …

Extreme weather events, interacting with vulnerable human and natural systems, can lead to disasters, especially in absence of responsive social system. Accurate and timely monitoring and forecast of heavy rains, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, hailstorms, cloudburst, drought, heat and cold waves, etc. are required to respond effectively to such events. Due to extreme weather events, crops over large parts of the country are adversely affected reducing production of total food grains, fodder, cash crops, vegetables and fruits which in turn affect the earnings and livelihood of individual farmers as well as the economy of the country. In situ observational network are the vital component for skilful prediction of extreme weather events. Current observational requirements for extreme weather prediction are met, to varying degrees by a range of in-situ observing systems and space-based systems. The augmentation of in-situ observational network is continuously progressing. IMD now has a network of Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs), Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs), Agro AWSs, Automatic Rain Gauges (ARGs), GPS upper air systems etc. These observations along with non-conventional (satellite) data are now being used to run its global and regional numerical prediction models on High Performance Computing Systems (HPCS). This has improved monitoring and forecasting capabilities for extreme weather events like cyclones, severe thunderstorm, heavy rainfall and floods in a significant manner. This paper provides an overview of the role of in-situ observational network for extreme weather events in India, framework for further augmentation to the network and other requirements to further enhance capabilities for high impact & extreme weather events and natural hazards.

Left unmitigated, climate change poses a catastrophic risk to human health, requiring an urgent and concerted response from every country. As the home to one fifth of the world's population and the largest emitter of carbon dioxide globally, China's interventions in climate change are of pivotal importance, both to human health and to the planet. Similar to other countries, climate change mitigation and adaptation would bring immense health benefits for China's 1·4 billion people, and building these considerations into any COVID-19 recovery strategy and the detailed pathway to fulfil the 2060 carbon neutrality pledge will ensure it improves human wellbeing, both now and in the future. Decisions made over the coming months and years will establish the course of climate change policy for decades to come. To meet this challenge, Tsinghua University (Beijing, China), partnering with University College London (London, UK) and 17 Chinese and international institutions, has produced the Lancet Countdown China report, focusing at the national level and building on the work of the global Lancet Countdown. Drawing on international methods and frameworks, this report aims to understand and track the links between public health and climate change at the national level. This paper is one part of the Lancet Countdown's broader efforts to develop regional expertise and understanding. Uniquely, the data and results in this report are presented at the provincial level where possible, to facilitate the targeted response strategies for local decision makers. Taken as a whole, the findings of the 23 indicators convey two key messages. The first message is that the health effects from climate change in China are accelerating, posing an unacceptably high amount of health risk if global temperatures continue to rise. Every province is affected, each with its unique health threats, and targeted response strategies should be made accordingly. The effects of climate change, manifested in rising temperatures, more extreme weather events, and shifting vector ecology, are being felt in China. Heatwave-related mortality has risen by a factor of four from 1990 to 2019, reaching 26 800 deaths in 2019. The monetised cost of the high number of deaths is equivalent to the average annual income of 1·4 million people in China. Older people (>65 years old), who face a 10·4% higher risk of dying during a heatwave, endured an average of 13 more heatwave days in 2019 compared with the 1986–2005 baseline. For outdoor workers, their potential heat-related labour productivity loss reached 0·5% of total national work hours, costing 1% of China's gross domestic product (GDP), equivalent to its annual fiscal expenditure on science and technology. Driven in part by rising temperatures and a changing climate, the advent of more extreme wildfires and the spread of dengue fever will in turn lead to profound health effects. Different regions have unique health threats, requiring a targeted response—19 provinces have had an at least 10% rise over the past two decades in three or more of the six health effect indicators reported. Importantly, many highly populated and economically advanced provinces, such as Henan, Shandong, and Zhejiang, are faced with health risks that are larger and more rapidly accelerating than others. The second message is that impressive and concerted improvements have been made across several sectors in China; however, the gap in the country's response to the health effects of climate change is large. In some sectors, China has taken large steps to address climate change. Solar power generation is growing at an unprecedented rate of 26·5% per year, rising to 26·8 gigawatts (GW) of newly installed capacity in 2019. Investments in low-carbon energy are now nine times greater than those in fossil fuels (rising from a 1:1 ratio in 2008); and, providing 4·1 million jobs in 2018, renewable energy now employs more people in China than fossil fuel extraction industries. As a result of strong policy measures, severe air pollution has also decreased, with a 28% reduction in annual average particulate matter of 2·5 μm or less (PM2·5) concentration in cities from 2015 to 2019, resulting in 90 000 fewer PM2·5-related premature deaths annually. These air pollution control policies also act to mitigate climate change and have resulted in a decline in China's coal share in total primary energy supply from 66% in 2014 to 59% in 2018. Showing leadership at the subnational level, three provinces already have a provincial health and climate change plan in place, with four more provinces underway. However, although these changes have been rapid, more shifts of a greater size are necessary to enact a response that is of the scale required to fulfil China's carbon neutrality by 2060 pledge and to minimise the rising health burdens of climate change, both in China and around the world. Although renewable energy use is rising, coal stills holds a 59% share of the total primary energy supply in China. Fossil fuel subsidies were US$41·9 billion in 2018, without considering the contribution of fossil fuels to the estimated $10·7 billion economic losses because of premature mortality from PM2·5 air pollution. Although there have been substantial reductions in air pollution, 42% of China's population still live in areas that do not meet the interim air quality guidelines from WHO, and almost all cities have PM2·5 concentrations more than the recommended annual average of 10 μg/m3. The health effects of climate change are not adequately recognised or addressed, as climate change is not referenced in the Healthy China Action Plan (2019–30), and China is yet to introduce a standalone national adaptation plan for health. Taking a broader perspective, media coverage and individual engagement in health and climate change are low, with little spread of knowledge and engagement. China will need to scale up progress in all sectors to counteract the rising curve of the health risks from climate change. Five recommendations are proposed to key stakeholders in health and climate change in China: (1)Enhance interdepartmental cooperation. Climate change is a challenge that requires an integrated response from all sectors. Although China commits to integrate health into all policies, substantial interdepartmental cooperation among health, environment, energy, economic, financial, and education authorities is urgently needed.(2)Strengthen health emergency preparedness. Although the amount of health emergency preparedness in China would be greatly enhanced after COVID-19, knowledge and findings on current and future climate-related health threats still do not have enough attention and should be fully integrated into the emergency preparedness and response system, so that future health service, medical supplies, and infrastructure needs could be planned ahead.(3)Support research and raise awareness. Additional financial support should be allocated to health and climate change research in China, to enhance the knowledge of health system adaptation, mitigation measures, and their resulting health benefits. At the same time, media and academia should be fully motivated to raise awareness on this topic for the public and for politicians. Additionally, the Government of China should update the Healthy China Action Plan (2019–30) to address the health risks of climate change as soon as possible.(4)Increase climate change mitigation. China's new pledges towards carbon neutrality by 2060 is a major step forward. Speeding up the coal phase-out process is therefore necessary to be consistent with the carbon neutrality pledges and continue China's progress on air pollution reduction. Fossil fuel subsidies should also be phased out to reflect the true cost of ongoing fossil fuel use and to avoid undermining the effect of China's emissions trading scheme, scheduled to take effect in 2021.(5)Ensure the country's recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic protects health both now and in the future. Decisions made as part of China's efforts to recover from COVID-19 will shape the public's health for years to come. The longer-term prospects for lives, livelihoods, and a sustainable economy will be put in jeopardy if these interventions do not prioritise climate change.

Climate change represents the greatest threat to human health, with both direct and indirect effects.  The direct increase of deaths, due to extreme weather and climate events, the emergence and spread of infectious diseases related to changing temperature, habitat and precipitation patterns, and eventually climate shocks and growing stress and anxiety that are affecting mental health. Moreover, extreme weather events cause issues on our health systems and infrastructures, reducing capacity to provide health coverage.   An increasing awareness on adverse effects of climate change is leading to an update of the EU policy framework through the introduction of  the EU Green Deal, a ‘package’ of directive, policies and strategies to ensure planning, monitoring and reporting of progress towards responsive climate adaptation and climate neutrality; however, a clear demonstration of the health-relevant outcomes of climate policies and actions is still missing, and current policies do not properly consider human health protection.   The study is developed within the Horizon Europe-funded project TRIGGER, aimed at deepening the understanding of the linkage between climate change and health and advancing society uptake at policy level.  Starting from mapping and screening the existing climate-related policies and measures at European level, this study assesses the integration of health in such documents. Specifically, through a keyword-based content analysis, it evaluates the integration of health-relevant considerations in 11 European plans and strategies, referring to climate mitigation and adaptation, environmental sustainability and biodiversity conservation. To establish to what extent they consider the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on human health, a qualitative assessment of health integration is performed, exploring also, when available, cost-benefits estimation to possible health impacts and health-related indicators developed.   The results show that extreme events, such as heat waves and droughts, heavy precipitation and flooding, are the climate-related hazards mostly mentioned in relation to health, even though the policy integration remains limited. Indeed, just few policies contain references to physical health impacts determined by climate change, such as infectious and vector borne diseases, injuries from extreme weather events and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, while social and mental health effects are even less considered.    

Economic and sustainability promises of wind energy considering the impacts of climate change and vulnerabilities to extreme conditions

Human societies rely on the existence of functioning global ecosystems, which are threatened by a combination of gradual changes and extreme events. Among the latter, natural hazards such as wildfires or floods can play a *functional* role for ecosystems, with plant and animal species requiring regular disturbance in their life-cycle in order to thrive, but beyond a threshold, the extreme events might cause ecosystem degradation.Here we map and project the risk of tropical cyclones on coastal ecosystems worldwide, using the probabilistic risk model CLIMADA to describe the vulnerability of global terrestrial ecosystems to tropical cyclones. First, a baseline for the current climate conditions is used to determine whether ecosystems are resilient, dependent, or vulnerable to tropical cyclones. We show that most ecosystems in the tropics are at least resilient to lower-intensity storms, but only a few ecosystems are not vulnerable to high-intensity storms. Second, the changes in tropical cyclone frequency under the high-emission scenario RCP8.5 in 2050 are used to determine which ecosystems are at risk. We show that while the global increase in the frequency of strong storms is the most threatening effect, several ecosystems with a dependency relationship are also at risk of locally decreasing frequency of low to middle-intensity storms.Our study paves the way for a better understanding of the functional and vital relationship between extreme weather events and ecosystems at a global scale, and how regime shifts under climate change might threaten them. This can prove useful to improve ecosystem management and design appropriate nature-based protection measures in a rapidly changing climate.