Anthelmintic control failure and associated risk factors reported by farmers in communal sheep farming, Oliver Tambo District, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Anthelmintic drugs are readily accessible to farmers and have been widely used to control gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections in communally reared sheep in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP), South Africa. Indiscriminate and prolonged use of these drugs has inevitably contributed to the selection of resistant GIN populations. This study aimed to assess the anthelmintic resistance status of GINs in communally reared sheep farms in King Sabata Dalindyebo Local Municipality, ECP. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on farm characteristics and helminth control practices. Faecal egg count reduction tests were performed on 259 lambs selected from eight communal farms. Lambs with egg per gram count > 150 were treated with anthelmintics (co-formulation of albendazole + closantel, and levamisole) currently used on the farms as well as an alternative anthelmintic from a different drug class (ivermectin, and a co-formulation of levamisole + praziquantel). Several suboptimal helminth control practices were identified that may have compromised the accurate administration of anthelmintics and effective management of deworming. These include the advanced age (> 65 years) of farmers: failure to weigh sheep prior to drug administration, use of syringes (5 ml/10 ml) instead of drench guns, and absence of a drenching and shifting approach. Helminths eggs from the genera Moniezia, Strongyloides, Trichuris, and Haemonchus were identified in both pre-and post-treatment faecal samples. Coprological culture of post-treatment samples, followed by morphological and molecular identification of larvae, confirmed the presence of Haemonchus contortus. This GIN species exhibited resistance to all the anthelmintic formulations assessed in this study. These findings highlight the urgent need for improved management strategies to mitigate resistance and promote sustainable worm control in communal sheep farming areas of ECP.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00436-025-08532-x.

There are substantial and unexploited market opportunities for communal farmers in the Eastern Cape, yet they own 3.3 million head of cattle. ComMark embarked on the Eastern Cape Red Meat Project in 2005 with the aim of increasing participation in formal markets by communal farmers. With the closure of ComMark in 2008, the National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC) was approached to take over the project since it had made a significant contribution to communal farmers through improved participation in the formal markets. NAMC embraced the opportunity by accepting the proposal, and that was the birth of the National Red Meat Development Proframme (NRMDP). NRMDP was established to improve income from animal husbandry and to create opportunities for communal farmers to commercialise, as well as participate in the formal markets. Theis research therefore 1) assesses the factors that contribute to improved market participation of communal farmers as a result of the NRMDP; 2) estimate household income of communal red meat farmers since the implementation of the NRMDP and 3) determine if the programme has a positive economic and social return. Using primary data obtained from 150 farmers, both purposively and randomly sampled in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, the analysis of the performance of the programe showed an increase in market participation over the years since the inception of the NRMDP. The results of the study suggested that incomes received by farmers have increased, which means that the farmers are beginning to understand the requirements of the market, and they have increased their asset bases. From the analysis, it can be deduced that farmers with larger livestock herds are more likely to sell their livestock to formal markets that those with smaller herds. The off-take rate has increased after the implementation of the NRMDP from 5% to an approximated average of 12.5%. However, this rate is still far below the 25% for commercial farmers. In determining the factors that influence household incomes of communal farmers, participating in the NRMDP was found to be statistically significant at 5% level. It was observed that most of the farmers that participate in the NRMDP are aware of the requirements of the market, and that they produce high-value products and comply by delivering cattle of good quality. For that reason, the programme is essential in improving household incomes for communal farmers, and in consequence, improving rural livelihoods. A cost-benefit analysis was also performed to test the viability and worth of the programme. The calculated NPV was found to be positive, suggesting that the public funds invested in the programme have a good social and economic return. Nevertheless, there are some hurdles that influence participation of communal farmers in high-value markets. To improve the impact of the programme, it was recommended that such programmes should be aligned with other initiatives implemented by government to maximise formal market participation and prevent duplication of similar programmes. It is envisaged that this alignment will enable farmers to be competitive in formal markets and enjoy the benefits of participating in high-value markets.

In 2005, ComMark embarked on the Eastern Cape Red Meat Development Programme (ECRMDP) as an initiative to increase formal market participation of communal farmers. With the end of support from ComMark in 2008, the National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC) took over. With funding from the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) and partnerships with the provincial departments and the municipalities, the programme has expanded effectively within the Eastern Cape Province and it has been rolled out to other provinces as well, hence it is now known as the National Red Meat Development Programme (NRMDP). The initiative emanated from the observation that the local demand for beef outstrips production, hence resulting into importation of more beef. This was against the background that there was untapped potential in the communal farming areas where 40% of beef production takes place in South Africa, of which 3.3 million heads of cattle is found in the Eastern Cape alone. Although the programme has so far had a significant contribution towards communal farmers’ participation in formal markets as well as their understanding of the value of formal market participation, empirical evidence to support this notion is still desirable. Hence this case study was conducted to determine the factors that influence farmers’ participation in the programme, focusing on the Eastern Cape Province. A logistic regression model was used to determine factors influencing farmers’ participation in the programme, and the results indicated that distance to markets, stock size, days of fattening and the contribution of the programme (income earned from livestock sales through the programme) significantly influence farmers’ participation. This is an indication that farmers are slowly beginning to understand how they can best make use of the opportunity presented by the programme. Hence policy wise, it is commendable to encourage communal livestock farmers to participate in the programme.

Rearing of goats under communal farming conditions is characterised by high kid mortality and low weaning percentages. A survey was conducted to determine farmers' perceptions on the causes of kid mortality during summer under the communal farming system in Nkonkobe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This was done by administering questionnaires to a total of 162 respondents in 14 villages around Nkonkobe Local Municipality. The study showed that majority of farmers (75 %) keep flock sizes of less than 10 goats and kids, and this indicates that goat production in Nkonkobe Local Municipality is suppressed. According to the farmers, diseases (89 %), endo-parasites (72 %) and ecto-parasites (68 %) were perceived as the major causes of kid mortality. Other causes reported include starvation (15 %), extreme weather conditions (28 %), abortion (7 %), theft (35 %), diarrhoea (43 %), accidents (10 %) and wounds (9 %). The low number of goats could be attributed to high mortalities. It was also found that all causes reported by farmers played a role in high kid mortality in Nkonkobe Local Municipality. However, the causes which require more emphasis to formulate extension support were tick-borne diseases and parasites. This study provided baseline information on possible causes of kid mortalities in Nkonkobe Local Municipality. There is, however, a need to conduct further studies to determine actual causes of high kid mortalities so as to develop preventive strategies that would minimize kid mortality for good economic returns.

Assessment of communal farmers' knowledge of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) within the FMD protection zone with vaccination of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces, South Africa.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) pose significant threats to cattle farming, impacting livestock health, productivity, and economic sustainability. In communal farming systems, the challenges of tick control are exacerbated by limited resources, acaricide resistance, and climate change. This study assesses communal cattle farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding ticks, TBDs, and the control measures implemented in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa. A cross-sectional survey was conducted using structured questionnaires administered to 100 cattle farmers across 20 communities in four vegetation types: Albany coastal belt (ACB), Amathole montane grassland (AMG), Bhisho thornveld (BT), and Great fish thicket (GFT). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson's Chi-square tests, and Kruskal-Wallis tests to determine associations between farmer demographics, livestock management practices, and the prevalence of TBDs. Most respondents (85%) were male, with an average age of 60 years, and 65% had only primary education. Livestock ownership varied across vegetation types, with cattle numbers ranging between 12.8 ± 1.17 and 15.6 ± 1.35 per farmer. Tick infestation was perceived as a major constraint, with adult cattle more affected than calves (χ2 = 15.98, p < 0.001). The most commonly reported TBDs were redwater (100%), gallsickness (90%), and heartwater (43%), with heartwater absent in AMG. Tick control methods included plunge dipping (90%) and the use of alternative treatments such as used motor oil (54%) and Jeyes fluid (35%). Acaricide inefficacy, poor mixing practices, and the uncontrolled movement of cattle were identified as major constraints to effective tick management. Communal cattle farmers in the ECP recognize ticks and TBDs as critical challenges, with variations in TBD prevalence linked to vegetation type. Ineffective acaricide use and resistance are growing concerns, necessitating improved extension services and farmer education. Sustainable tick management strategies should integrate scientific knowledge with indigenous practices to enhance livestock health and productivity in communal farming systems.

Many alien tree species were introduced into grassland ecosystems in South Africa by the commercial forestry industry for paper and timber for furniture. Over decades some of these introduced species escaped into neighbouring farms and community land. Adult trees from these alien species now provide other ecosystem services, notably fuelwood. Depending on the spatio-temporal context, many of these species can also negatively affect ecosystem services. We collected interview data from commercial and communal farmers in the upper Umzimvubu catchment in South Africa to compare farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of invasive wattle species invasion and their associated ecosystem services and disservices. Fuelwood and fencing poles were the most common uses of wattle by commercial (83%; 67%) and communal (99%; 49%) farmers. On the other hand, the reduction of grass cover and loss of grazing land were the most commonly mentioned negative impacts of wattles by commercial (83%; 75%) and communal (92%; 80%) farmers. Although both groups recognise the importance of wattles in providing ecosystem services, most communal farmers perceived wattles to have more negative effects than benefits. The findings demonstrate that both farmer groups highly depend on ecosystem services and are affected by disservices of wattles. However, while large-scale commercial households favour the presence of wattles in the landscape, communal households prefer complete removal of the wattles from the landscape. This may be due to lack of locally available alternative options or inability to replace or purchase ecosystem services affected by wattles from other sources or markets like commercial farmers.

Communal farmers' perception of drought in South Africa: Policy implication for drought risk reduction

Traditional communal farming in southern Africa has often been described as unproductive and directly responsible for regional poverty and vegetation degradation. Each aspect of this argument rests on a set of unchallenged assumptions concerning the nature of communal farming. Studies which emphasize the social and cultural significance of communal farming systems are highlighted. These studies also suggest that communal farming systems are logical and pragmatic adaptations to local conditions, especially from the point of view of local communities, and that they often have underlying rules of behaviour. It is concluded that unless full participation of local communities at every level of the decision‐making process is guaranteed, resistance to and failure of agricultural development programmes is likely.

Estimation of ecological drought vulnerability indicators is the important step for drought mitigation management. This article identified and estimated ecological drought vulnerability indicators among communal farmers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, using an ecological vulnerability index based on a household survey of 121 communal farmers. The results identified overgrazing, soil erosion, land degradation, surface and groundwater supply, and land use management as the main ecological vulnerability variables. The results showed that climate is not necessarily linked to ecological vulnerability. High rainfall districts in this study showed higher ecological vulnerability to drought because of poor planning and management of water supply, poor grazing practices and land management that leads to serious land degradation. The identification and analysis of ecological vulnerability indicators to drought would aid in reconsidering priorities for the government to implement appropriate policy measures in response to drought and suggest strategies to reduce drought vulnerability. Such policies and strategies will strengthen climate change adaptation and ensure ecological and climate sustainability that comply with the Millennium Development Goals set out by the United Nations in 2000 and the subsequent 2030 development agenda for the Sustainable Development Goals.

In South African grasslands, rangeland management is strongly related to land tenure. Communal farms are reported to exhibit less desirable vegetation conditions for livestock than commercial farms. Time series of high spatial and temporal resolution imagery may be useful for improved evaluation of these rangelands as they provide information at a spatial scale similar to the typical scale of field assessments and may thus overcome the limited spatio-temporal representativeness of field measurements. A time series of 13 RapidEye images over one growing season (2010–2011) was used to explore spectral differences between and within two management systems (commercial vs. communal). Isomap ordination was applied to map continuous spectral dissimilarities of sample plots. Using regression with simultaneous autoregressive models (SAR), dissimilarities were subsequently related to ecological variables of plant and soil, including indicators for grazing effects. The largest differences were found between sample plots of communal and commercial farms. Vegetation attributes were significantly related to dissimilarities in reflectance, both from the growing season and the dormant period. However, these relationships did not suggest vegetation degradation on communal farms. They further suggest that a management-related pattern of grazing disturbance in the summer months led to spectral differences between farms but could have impaired the detailed characterization of spectral dissimilarities related to differences in vegetation composition.

Most of rural South Africa is semi arid, experiencing a variable climate with extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. Communal farmers experience problems of getting reliable weather information. Datasets used to describe climate change and variability rely on spatially interpolated gridded data from a few weather stations. The ability of gridded climate data to describe climate variability at the local level has been widely questioned. Communal farmers have developed indigenous strategies to cope with these extremes in order to sustain agricultural production. The objective of this study was to document indigenous strategies that smallholder farmers in Bergville and Msinga, in KwaZulu Natal Province, use to predict weather, conserve soil and water, and manage climate extremes events. Data were gathered through key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and questionnaire. Results showed that more farmers in Msinga than Bergville observed reduced rainfalls and increased temperatures as an indicator of climate variability (p&lt;.05). Bergville and Msinga communal farmers use indigenous indicators such as wind and cloud patterns, animal and bird behaviour, moon shape, and position of the sun to predict weather. Communal farmers using manure were 0.17 times more likely to conserve soil and water when compared with those using artificial fertilizer (p&lt;.05). Thus, indigenous knowledge system (IKS) can be used to conserve soil and water and manage climate extremes and variability. Communal farmers also resist adopting unfamiliar strategies that are forced on them without proper engagement. Communal farmers have managed to survive extreme weather events using IKS.

Background and Aim: Sheep scab is one of the most contagious diseases of sheep found in rural communities worldwide and is a major health and welfare concern for sheep farming. Information on the attitudes of communal farmers to sheep scab remains speculative in the Eastern Cape Province. This study aimed to investigate knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to the prevalence of sheep scab among communal sheep farmers in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Materials and Methods: From June to August 2022, a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire (n = 160) was conducted in two rural communities of the Enoch Mgijima Local Municipality in Eastern Cape Province. Purpose sampling was used to obtain respondents’ knowledge, attitudes, and management practices regarding sheep scabs. Results: Among respondents, 81% were males and 19% were females. The majority of sheep farmers (59%) in both communities were aware of sheep scabs, but the majority (64%) did not receive any farming training. The majority of sheep farmers (65%) believed that sheep scab was the most serious threat to their sheep production since it increased mortality. In the past 3 years, approximately 57% of respondents reported an increase in the prevalence of sheep scab. The majority of farmers reported wool loss as the most noticeable clinical symptom (73%). More than 80% of sheep farmers do not use acaricide on a regular basis. Sixty-one percent of farmers prefer a pour-on topical application method. The frequency of annual dipping was every fortnight (40%), during summer and winter (24%). Most farmers (66%) regularly vaccinate their sheep. Conclusion: The prevalence of sheep scab is increasing in these communities; however, a better understanding of the factors that facilitate its transmission is required to allow improved management and control of this disease. The government must involve extension officers and distribute them to disseminate information to farmers. Thus, it will be easy to translate the literature into action. Keywords: communal sheep farmers, Eastern Cape Province, season, sheep scab control methods, sheep scab.

The local ecological knowledge (LEK) and perceptions of grasses were investigated in six semi-arid communal areas in the central Eastern Cape province, South Africa, and compared with field studies and scientific knowledge. Of the total of 21 grasses identified in the field survey, communal farmers had vernacular names only for 11 species. Respondents rated Digitaria eriantha and Pennisetum clandestinum to have the highest (p < 0.05) grazing value. Respondents’ ratings of Eragrostis obtusa and Sporobolus africanus as having similar (moderate) grazing values to Themeda triandra is against the established knowledge. Respondents’ ratings of T. triandra and S. africanus as having higher (p = 0.01) ecological value than the other grasses concur with the scientific knowledge, whereas their nomination of E. obtusa and D. eriantha as providing less ecological benefits than Aristida conjesta disagrees with some ecologists. The study hinted at the complementarity and discrepancies between LEK and scientific knowledge that need ratification. The respondents’ lack of detailed knowledge is suggestive of a gradual eroding of LEK among the local communities that will adversely impact the local people’s ability to implement sustainable rangeland utilisation practice. The current study also recognised farmers’ familiarity as well as training needs that would expound their knowledge and management of grasses.

This study was conducted to assess the progression of deltamethrin resistance in Rhipicephalus (B.) microplus populations over a 5-year period, from 2019 to 2023, on selected communal farms in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Ticks were collected from three communal farms with a documented history of deltamethrin resistance in R. (B.) microplus populations in 2019. The sampled tick populations were tested for resistance using the adult immersion test (AIT). The data generated from the AIT indicated deltamethrin resistance, with oviposition inhibition percentages ≤ 95% at both the manufacturer’s recommended dose and twice the recommended dose. These findings confirm the establishment of deltamethrin resistance in R. (B.) microplus populations on the communal farms within the KSD local municipality, following over a decade of frequent and continuous use of this acaricide. Ticks on cattle, along with their control and acaricide resistance in tick populations, pose a significant threat to livestock production on communal farms in South Africa.