Anaphoric procedures in four text types written by children

This study aims to describe the structure of the text (orientation, complications, resolution), elements, and types of text contained in the fantasy text stories written by students of class VII of SMP Negeri 7 Padang. The data to be analyzed in the form of structure, elements, and type of text contained in the text of a fantasy story. Data collection techniques in this study were carried out through three stages. First, researchers read and understand the text of fantasy stories. Second, researchers mark the sections related to the structure of the text, elements, and types of text of fantasy stories. Third, inventorying findings related to the structure, elements, and type of text into the data inventory format Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded three things as follows. First, in general students of class VII SMP 7 Padang have used the three text structures of fantasy stories. This is evident from the 48 fantasy story texts analyzed there are 2 fantasy story texts that do not have a complete structure. Second, students generally use six elements of fantasy story text. This is evident from the 48 fantasy texts analyzed which all have complete elements, namely themes, plot, characters and characterizations, settings, points of view, and mandates. Third, the type of fantasy story text is divided into two, namely (1) based on conformity with the real world, students are more likely to write slices of fantasy stories and (2) based on story settings, students tend to write stories over time, from the present to the past. Kata Kunci: Struktur, Teks Cerita Fantasi Tipe, Unsur

The interaction between a computer and a human or natural language is known as Natural Language Processing (NLP). The ultimate goal is to make the natural language text understandable, which in turn, requires its meaning to be captured. Text can be analyzed on several levels, such as lexical, syntax, semantics, discourse, and pragmatics. These NLP tasks deal with text at different levels, such as word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, and document. Discourse analysis is a type of text analysis that goes beyond the sentence level. The discourse analysis is currently performed on expository (essay) type of texts. There are currently no state-of-the-art NLP applications that handle Tamil literary texts at a discourse level. Tamil classical literature is rich with ethical, moral, and philosophical values that should be explored for the benefit of society. This paper proposes an automatic semantic interpretation framework for Tamil literary texts using discourse parsing by giving works on discourse parsing, text classification, discourse-based clustering and information retrieval, and Tamil language and Tamil literatures. This semantic interpretation can be developed as a smart mobile application using multimedia components. This paper also discusses how the Tamil literary text processing differs from the essay type of text.

Aim . To identify the significance of the category of modality for the semantic unity of philosophical text in the development of a system of its adequate interpretation. Methodology . Based on structural-functional, descriptive, and conceptual methods and the method of segment analysis, this paper analyzes several abstracts from classical academic philosophical text from the point of view of one of the main text-forming categories which is the category of modality. Results . The article proves that the selected invariant signs of modality should serve as a basis for modeling the type of philosophical text. Research implications . The results of the research might prove useful for development of the language theory as well as for modeling of various types of texts. They are of interest for linguists, philologists, journalists, and philosophers engaged in the problems of philosophical text generation.

ABSTRACTOld French sentential negation (NEG) represents an important morphosyntactic change that has been investigated by a large number of scholars from different theoretical approaches. From the 12th to the 14th (and mainly in the 13th) century, there are two variants of this variable in competition: NEG with onlyne(the older variant) and NEG withne+pas/mie/point, etc. The research presented in this paper has been motivated by the wish to find relevant factors for this variation in Old French. In order to identify factors of influence on the variable NEG with or withoutpas,mieandpoint, we analyse two subcorpora containing two different text types. The choice of the tested factors is rooted both in variational linguistics and in previous studies on Old French negation, implying (extralinguistic) diasystematic factors like diatopic and diastratic ones as well as intralinguistic factors like transitivity of the verb, word order and clause type. Main findings are the probable relevance of clause type and the influence of socially definable (diastratic) groups. Beyond this, the results across the two different text type are predominantly similar, but we found differences as well. This leads us to plead in favour of the importance of considering the factor text type while working on diachronic corpora.

Understanding Language Understanding: Computational Models of Reading edited by Ashwin Ram and Kenneth Moorman

This paper discusses an important issue in computational linguistics: classifying texts as formal or informal style. Our work describes a genre-independent methodology for building classifiers for formal and informal texts. We used machine learning techniques to do the automatic classification, and performed the classification experiments at both the document level and the sentence level. First, we studied the main characteristics of each style, in order to train a system that can distinguish between them. We then built two datasets: the first dataset represents general-domain documents of formal and informal style, and the second represents medical texts. We tested on the second dataset at the document level, to determine if our model is sufficiently general, and that it works on any type of text. The datasets are built by collecting documents for both styles from different sources. After collecting the data, we extracted features from each text. The features that we designed represent the main characteristics of both styles. Finally, we tested several classification algorithms, namely Decision Trees, Naïve Bayes, and Support Vector Machines, in order to choose the classifier that generates the best classification results.

This study investigates the frequency and handling of parallelism in Arabic and English, focusing on how it affects argumentation in political discourse. This paper examines how parallelism is preserved in translation from Arabic to English, with a focus on a selection of King Abdullah II's speeches. However, it does not explore the impact of translating from Arabic to English on parallelism in other types of texts, an area that could be investigated in future studies. Using speeches by King Abdullah II, the study compares Arabic original texts to their English translations. The texts are taken from speeches by King Abdullah II to compare the changes in parallelism that occur when translating the texts from Arabic to English. Three levels of parallelism—word level, sentence level, and chunk level—are examined. The findings are presented in two tables: one for Arabic speeches and another for their English translations. The study's corpus includes original Arabic political speeches and their English translations, as parallelism is examined from the perspective of translation studies. The analysis reveals a total of nineteen parallel structures in the Arabic texts. In contrast, the English translations retained only six parallel structures, displayed eight semi-parallel structures, and lost five structures altogether. These findings highlight the similarities and differences in parallelism between Arabic and English, shedding light on the implications of translation choices in the context of political speech. The study emphasizes the importance of maintaining parallelism to strengthen arguments in translation.

Subject extraposition (e.g. it is important to remember) is generally considered to be a formal construction that learners, whose writing is often said to be overly informal, have been found to struggle with. This study investigates to what extent register and text type can be used to explore learners’ reportedly “informal” use of this construction. Learner writing is compared to expert writing from several different registers and to native-speaker student writing. The results show that there are important differences across both registers and text types. Furthermore, while the learners’ use is most like that of the experts’ academic writing, certain similarities to the non-academic registers were also noted. The results additionally suggest that earlier claims about the informal status of learner writing seem mainly to have been influenced by the text types included in the corpora previously investigated.

The great obstacle in dealing with choices between various lexical and grammatical expressions in Ancient Hebrew is that we have little knowledge of the options that were available to writers in those days, and exactly which leading style characterized the various epochs in ancient Israel. It has been fully established, however, that the various text types in Biblical Hebrew have their specific grammatical constructions, and this difference between text types is likely to be found in Qumran Hebrew as well. In addition, by comparing texts from the Bible and from Qumran it seems possible to trace some linguistic development as reflected within the different text types. This chapter points to some aspects of the verbal system in Qumran Hebrew from the point of view of text type and genre, and discusses the concurrence between text type and formal expressions, as well as the diachronic development of the language. Keywords: 4QMMT; Bible; Qumran Hebrew; verbal system

Modals are a source of difficulty in translation due to the subtle and complex nature of the meanings they convey, as well as the diversity of formal means by which modal meaning is coded from one language to another. The present study sheds light on difficulties associated with the translation of modal expressions by exploring errors in the translations of a group of native Arabic-speaking translator trainees, and identifies difficulties they experienced in transferring modal meaning from an English source text (ST) to an Arabic target text (TT). Shortcomings in the skills and training of the participants are discussed in the light of these findings, and suggestions are given as to how these may be remedied.<p>The results of the study show that while the students generally exhibit a sound knowledge of the dictionary meanings of the modal expressions in the ST, the precise sense of a given modal was often misconstrued and in many cases the modal meaning was missing entirely from the translations. These problems suggest that the participants tended to process the meanings of the ST at the word and sentence level while neglecting broader macro-level meanings conveyed in the text (e.g. cohesion, text type, relationship between author and audience).<p>The study reveals that in addition to the need for students to develop greater awareness of the nature of modality and its expression in both English and Arabic, greater emphasis is needed in the training of the students on the improvement of topdown text processing skills.<p>

Using the rise of three final particles in spoken English ( then , though, anyway ) as a case study it will be shown that dialogic interaction is an important domain of grammaticalization. The central idea is that grammaticalization may be induced by the regularization of interactive sequences which, over time, freeze into dialogic schemas and trigger a change of originally lexical or sentence-internal grammatical items involved in such schemas into elements establishing relations beyond the sentence level. The study shows that the proper domain of grammaticalization is not an individual element, but the dialogic context in which it is regularly used. Corpus-based, empirical data are used to document the grammaticalization of the three final particles in different text types within a framework that conceives of grammaticalization as structural and contextual expansion (rather than reduction) and as a functional (rather than formal) change.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of text and discourse analysis, delving into key concepts, methodological approaches, analytical levels, text types, discourse genres, and real-world applications. The chapter defines text as a meaningful stretch of language with a communicative purpose, while discourse encompasses any language use in social contexts. Methodologies explored include linguistic analysis, functional analysis, critical discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and genre analysis. Five levels of analysis are discussed: word level, sentence level, whole text level, intertextual level, and sociocultural level. Text types analyzed include narratives, expository texts, and argumentative texts. Discourse genres examined include political discourse, educational discourse, and medical discourse. Finally, diverse applications are showcased in fields like stylistics, literacy education, digital communication, forensic linguistics, language teaching, and computational linguistics. This multifaceted exploration of texts and discourses facilitates nuanced linguistic analysis while unveiling intricate connections between language, meaning, and context across various realms of theory and practice.

What is a computer program? In Section 2.1 we shall try to clarify this point with definitions from a computing point of view and from a psychological point of view. We shall draw a parallel between research on the handling (production and comprehension) of natural language text and the handling of program text. From this point of view, two questions seem particularly relevant. First, is it possible to bring together theoretically a computer program and a natural language text. What type of text - narrative or procedural? Second, what are the differences between programming languages and natural languages? These questions will be addressed in Sections 2.2 and 2.3. These discussions will allow us to consider a wider definition of computer programs in Section 2.4.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate rewriting skills of preservice Turkish teachers in the context of text transformation. The participants of the study consists of 223 preservice teachers attending the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th academic years of the Turkish Language Education Branch of the Department of Turkish and Social Sciences Education in a State University. The students were asked to rewrite two different types of texts, entitled "Text 1" (poor one) and "Text 2" (good one). The data derived from the student texts were analyzed data analysis techniques. In this context, 2 different forms developed by the researchers were used to determine which rewriting techniques were used and to what extent and at which level. 2 different rubric were also utilized by the researcher in order to describe the quality of rewriting techniques, and which revisions were made at word, sentence, paragraph and text levels. According to some results obtained from the research, preservice Turkish teacher made more changes on Text 1. The students generally got 1, 2 and 3 points in all Accuracy, Clarity, Consistency, and Organization dimensions while rewriting the Text 1, when they rewrote Text 2, they usually scored (4) and (5). This has been interpreted as the students' rewritten texts are largely dependent on the original texts.

Alcuin’s De Animae Ratione explains how the tripartite soul facilitates the perception of distant people and places. Perception is facilitated through mental images, built from experience of the bodily senses. Alcuin illustrates the differences between the perception of a known or unknown place with an analogy, using Rome and Jerusalem as examples. Texts that reflect the cityscape of Rome, and the people associated with the cityscape, would have been an important medium through which distant readers perceived Rome. Three such types of text are papal letters, pilgrim itineraries and syllogae collections of inscriptions. These were often composed in Rome but read elsewhere. The materiality of these texts would have had an influence on the perception of Rome that was possible for their readers. However, the extant historiography of these three types of text has rarely considered the message in the medium through which their earliest readers accessed them. This thesis focuses on the early manuscript witnesses of these texts to explore the perception of Rome possible for their readers. These early manuscript witnesses are interpreted via application of Alcuin’s explanation of perception of place in his De Aminae Ratione. Each chapter focuses on one or two core manuscripts. The first chapter will examine the dissemination of Alcuin’s De Animae Ratione, by conducting a detailed analysis of the ninth-century manuscript copies. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 each focus on one key manuscript containing an early copy of one or more of the topographical texts. Chapter 5 will examine how papal letters and epitaphs are displayed in the earliest surviving manuscripts of Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum. These manuscripts provide a route into understanding the circulation, reading experience and impact of these texts as they were accessed by their earliest readers in England and Francia.