Analysis of the EU’s Dual VET promotion strategy and its impact on Spanish VET stakeholders

ABSTRACTIn 2012, in a context of high youth unemployment and under the influence of the European Union, Spain, began adopting dual vocational education and training (VET), initiating a policy transfer process that culminated in 2022 with legislation establishing duality as a defining feature of the national VET system. This article analyses the discourses and justifications expressed by national actors, focusing on the expected benefits that supported the adoption of dual VET during this phase. This study employs a qualitative methodology combining document analysis and semi‐structured interviews. Data were analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis to ensure a structured and rigorous approach. The research focuses on governmental, business, union, and educational actors, as well as foundations promoting dual VET, with data collected at the national level and in the autonomous communities of Andalusia and the Basque Country. The analysis identifies four main justifications for the adoption of dual VET in Spain, with the first two being the most widespread: (A) as a solution to the mismatch between qualifications and labour market demands, focusing on employers; (B) as a tool to improve youth employment and reduce unemployment, focusing on young people; (C) as a catalyst for training partnerships and systemic improvement; and (D) as a tool to reduce dropout rates. The two most widespread justifications (A and B) reflect international trends and the educationalisation of economic problems. Although actors cited Central European models, critics questioned their relevance, pointing to earlier national reforms, regional labour disparities, and stronger VET outcomes than university education. Justification C presented dual VET as a tool to foster collaboration and address underinvestment in public training infrastructure. Justification D, the least prominent, associated dual VET with reducing early school leaving, an idea supported by employers and foundations but not by unions.

Some southern member states have undertaken the reform of their vocational education and training (VET) systems so as to promote dual apprenticeship, such as that which is promoted in Germany. During this process, the European Union (EU) has exercised an extensive influence. This paper advances the analysis of the role exercised by the EU in this stage of cross-national attraction by analysing the model of VET governance promoted by European institutions. The methodology consists of a reflexive thematic analysis of the EU VET texts. A total of 35 texts from the EU institutions was analysed by using NVivo. This produced three themes under the overarching theme of fostering a more pluralistic governance system: promoting cooperation among stakeholders in the design, management and financing of the system, enhancing social dialogue and strengthening responsiveness to change in the world of work. This analysis concludes that the EU, as an agent of the policy transfer process, encourages the implementation of a cooperative governance model of VET systems, such as that present in the dual VET systems of certain member states with collective skill formation governance regimens such as Germany, Austria and Denmark.

Germany, Austria, and Switzerland have traditionally provided a large proportion of their workforces with qualifications obtained in the dual vocational training system. However, due to the growing demand for abstract and codified knowledge, all three countries aim at increasing the permeability and individual mobility between the dual training sector and the higher education system. In this chapter we analyse the ways in which Germany, Austria and Switzerland have tried to establish institutional linkages between dual vocational training and higher education. We begin by discussing options for creating such linkages: (1.) upgrading of vocational education and training courses, (2.) introducing dual courses of study, (3.) facilitating attendance of general upper secondary schools for people with vocational qualifications, (4.) enabling the parallel acquisition of a dual vocational training qualification and a higher education entrance qualification, (5.) allowing admission to higher education on the basis of prior dual vocational training qualifications and a certain amount of work experience, and (6.) recognising prior learning as an element in higher education programmes. Our analysis shows that, recently, Germany has relied strongly on the admission to higher education based on vocational training certificates in combination with work experience. Switzerland and Austria are rather pushing the comprehensive introduction of programmes that enable the parallel acquisition of a dual vocational training qualification and a higher education entrance qualification. Finally, we raise questions about the risk of institutional ambiguity and institutional task overload.KeywordsDual vocational trainingHigher educationPermeabilityInstitutional change

Dual vocational education and training (VET) has recently been introduced in Catalonia, as in the whole of Spain, and it should be the only VET system in the near future. However, Dual VET still coexists with traditional VET. The former has much more on-the-job training, companies are more involved in curricula design and training management, and trainees receive a salary or a scholarship. This study analysed the effect of Dual VET on students’ grades and degree completion. We use the whole population of Catalan students during four academic years (from 2015–2016 to 2018–2019) that completed their degree. We employ an instrumental variable approach to explain grades at completion. Results show that Dual VET had a positive effect on grades irrespective of the method and outcome used (standardised or non-standardised grades). In fact, our instrumental variables estimation showed a greater impact than the ordinary least squares results. In addition, Dual VET also increased the probability of graduation. Thus, the transformation of the Catalan VET into a Dual VET may have positive effects, since the latter improves course completion and grades.

This article analyzes the tripartite social dialogue of an inter-institutional commission in Costa Rica, which took place from February 27 to September 1, 2017. During this time the Costa Rican state the business sector and unions discussed ways to implement dual vocational education and training (VET) in Costa Rica, using the German model as a reference. Here, the focus is on the business sector’s concepts regarding if and how the German dual VET model should be transferred to Costa Rica. the findings are based on two interviews with Costa Rican business representatives and the observation of dialogue table meetings with representatives from the state, the business sector and unions. Based on the premise that discourses express and influence social practices, it is analyzed how the structure of the business sector’s arguments relate to Toulmin’s model of argumentation. It is concluded that from the Costa Rican business sector’s point of view, the policy of dual education in VET is essential to gain economic strength in a global market. However, for these business groups, the model must be “tropicalized” in a way that redefines some of the bases of the German reference model, such as union participation, distribution of training costs as well as the legal status of the apprentice. Therefore, it is concluded that the discussion on the dual model of VET was used as a window of opportunity to promote reforms that would favor the business sector.

Context: Vocational education and training (VET) has become a key issue in today's highly dynamic business, technological and economic environment, with a complex diversity of systems within the European Union. This paper aims to study the implementation of dual VET in Spain, focusing on the working conditions of company tutors in the tourism sector of Andalusia and the Canary Islands.Approach: Dual VET has been implemented in different ways, both between the different autonomous regions and professional areas since it was launched in 2012. In order to analyse these differences, interviews with teachers, head teachers, students and company tutors were carried out, between 2020 and 2021, in centres that had implemented dual vocational education training and centres that had not. The educational programme in dual VET implies a closer collaboration between schools and companies, as both are active training areas; the training objectives are shared between the school and the company. In this study, the company tutor is studied in his or her facet as trainer and assessor; but special emphasis is placed on the characteristics of the tourism sector, given its relevance in understanding the educational processes involved. Three dimensions underpin the analysis: the characteristics of the company tutor, the training and assessment processes implemented and the link that both maintain with the dynamics of tourism companies.Findings: In general terms, the initial assumptions put forward are confirmed. Firstly, the educational centre leads the process, taking the initiative yet without having the conditions of governance and negotiation typical of the Germanic countries from which these vocational education training systems originate. Secondly, the main characteristics of the company tutor are heterogeneity and informality. Thirdly, the contents and methodology are conditioned by the characteristics of the tourism sector. And finally, assessment also follows informal and changing procedures, generating tensions between the educational centre and company.Conclusions: These results give rise to some theoretical reflections. If the education system is an institution based on the principle of equality, it is worth asking to what extent dual VET can alter this principle, as the company adapts some of the contents and learning outcomes to its specific needs. In addition, an important differentiating factor that marks the learning dynamics has been detected: the size of the company. The difference in size may also influence the future prospects of trainees joining the workforce after completion of VET studies.

This chapter focuses on an innovative Dual Vocational Education and Training (VET) scheme developed in Asturias, Spain, as an instance of collaborative institutional work of regional unions, employers, and government creating a new institution to address a labour market mismatch. A key sector in the regional development strategy, in which employers had often voiced concerns about future skill shortages, the metal sector, was chosen to carry out a Dual VET experiment. The innovative design of the scheme – targeting low-skilled youth, promoting their being at the workplace from day one, and being paid workers – was union-led. Government, trade unions, and employers combined efforts in attracting prospective students-workers and trainers-employers and in supervising the scheme. Tracing the negotiation, implementation, and appraisal processes, the chapter reveals the key role of trade unions in shaping the scheme.

The impact of skills and training on local development

The Baltic states, as newer members of the European Union (EU), have been involved in the process of developing vocational education and training (VET) that was initiated by the Lisbon Council in 2000 and built upon by the 2002 Copenhagen Declaration. This chapter contributes to a collection of readings that provide information about the reform and development of VET in these countries in light of this European activity. The chapter acknowledges the role of the Lisbon Council and the Copenhagen Declaration in giving emphasis to VET through a series of initiatives designed to foster a Euopean VET sector. It provides an explanation of the key elements of the Copenhagen Declaration, which aims to develop increased cooperation in the area of VET in order to ‘promote trust, the transparency and recognition of qualifications, the establishment of a foundation for increased mobility and the facilitation of lifelong learning’. The authors provide a critical survey of the current situation in the EU, highlighting challenges, such as the need to increase the level and quality of mobility in VET, the shortage of qualified teaching and training staff, and a stagnant rate of participation in lifelong learning. A survey of the current state of play in the Baltic states follows, briefly outlining a number of reforms to the VET systems of the region begun in the early 1990s, and highlighting the problems still to be addressed, such as the negative image of VET. It is concluded that the new member states, including those of the Baltic region, have made considerable progress in developing their VET systems in line with European standards.

Dual Vocational Training was introduced in Spain in 2012 with the purpose to reinforce training based on employment requirements and to promote youth employment within the labour market. Since its implementation, there has been continuous growth of the presence of this modality across every Autonomous Community, with Andalusia being one of the latest regions to dualize the Vocational Educational Training (hereinafter VET) educational scheme. From the outset however, this modality has faced a number of obstacles that question its sustainability. Without losing sight of these obstacles, and with the purpose of providing arguments that justify the suitability of this model in Andalusia, this study aims to identify—from the unique perspective of three Andalusian educational institutions—the strengths of this modality and the opportunities that the Andalusian context offers. To this end, we have used the SWOT technique to analyse the opinion of a group of teachers regarding their thoughts on the Andalusian Dual VET system, from both an internal and external perspective. Workforce insertion and the quality of skills gained through training are some of the strengths that characterize this model, with the greatest opportunities derived from the needs of the Andalusian business and productive sectors. Based on the scenarios drawn, we have suggested a number of guidelines to capitalize on some of the identified strengths and take advantage of the opportunities observed.

The global financial crises of 2007-2008 continue to negatively affect the economies and societies of the European Union (EU). With some exceptions, economic growth is low and youth unemployment figures are high, resulting in significant economic and social costs to nations across the EU. This paper deals with the difficulties of measuring youth unemployment and the extent of the youth unemployment crises in the EU. The paper also investigates the perceptions of the origins of youth unemployment, the social and economic consequences for unemployed youth and EU countries, and the policies that have been implemented in response to the youth unemployment crisis. The question of what is effective in the fight against youth unemployment is raised in this short investigation. Whilst other policy strategies also have their strengths, dual Vocational Education and Training (VET) programmes appear to be particularly effective. Countries with an integrated dual VET system, such as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Denmark, have significantly lower youth unemployment than countries with other forms of training and education. The paper argues that the dual VET system, though perhaps difficult to replicate in all EU nations, represents a key strategy to combat youth unemployment.

The EU Response to COVID-19: From Reactive Policies to Strategic Decision-Making.

Context: The systematic literature review examines the current state of research on dual vocational education and training (VET) in the context of university dropout research. Understanding the interrelationship between university dropouts and dual VET is of central importance for recruiting dropouts for dual apprenticeships and integrating them as well as possible into the labour market and also socially. Approach: The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, identifying relevant articles using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The quality of the studies was assessed based on the Rost scale. Findings: The studies examined reveal a less clear picture regarding the various combinations of motives for university dropout as starting point for the transition to dual VET. Most of them can be traced back to processes related to study and career orientation. Dual VET programs constitute an attractive subsequent option. From a company perspective, university dropouts are considered a valuable target group, although the development of targeted dual VET programs tends to be approached cautiously. University dropouts are characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity, which presents a challenge for counselling services. The studies particularly emphasize the importance of potential analyses, psychosocial support, and the promotion of reflective processes. The counselling landscape itself is also marked by heterogeneity and would benefit from improved networking to better complement existing services. Measures such as the recognition or acceleration of VET should be implemented with caution, as they are not always effective. Conclusions: There remains a significant gap in research concerning the transition from university dropout to dual VET. It is especially important to give greater consideration to the prerequisites and prior experiences influencing this process, the integration process during dual VET itself and long-term effects.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the issue of dual vocational education and training (VET) attritions as indicating difficulties in the transition from school to work.Design/methodology/approachThe methodology consists of a content analysis of semi‐structured interviews with 46 young people who interrupted their dual VET during the first year.FindingsThe findings showed that VET “dropouts” experience transitional problems. These can be one of two sorts: diachronic or synchronic. Diachronic problems are related to difficulties with the shift from a standard school system to VET. Synchronic problems are due to difficulties in learning, relational or working environments.Research limitations/implicationsThe results stress the need to widen the definition of transition and to consider the context in which the transition takes place. Further research could compare these results with employers' and trainers' points‐of‐view.Practical implicationsAccordingly, interventions should be taken before and after the precise moment of the shift from school to VET and should include all stakeholders of VET.Originality/valueThe paper encompasses three original aspects: it considers school‐to‐work transition as a process beginning before and ending after the concrete shift to VET, suggesting that a transition is achieved only when the person reaches a relatively stable situation on the workplace; consequently, it conceives VET attrition as an indicator of a failure of the school‐to‐work transition process; and it stresses the influence of the social and the learning environment on the quality of VET.

In this article the author looks at the extent to which European Union (EU) suggestions for Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy development for young people, are translated in the context of convergence, as the result of an international trend for adaptation of common policies towards integration. The article traces issues that describe the relation of VET to convergence and integration, and questions the feasibility of socioeconomic integration in the EU, by presenting a short thematic analysis of issues and trends in three Member States, that have conformed to a large extent to the EU policy framework for VET. It is suggested that integration, as a multidimensional process, relates more to the pressure exerted by adults on young people to conform to predetermined standards, whether in working or social life, and argues that if there is to be a change, there will be a need for new methods of integration into a society which is not fixed and immutable, but in fact in the process of upheaval and of being constantly restructured.