Analysis of Cementing Carbonation During Co2 Sequestration

In this work, we introduce LiNi0.8Mn0.15Al0.05O2 (NMA), which is cobalt-free and hasa highnickel content, and a conductive composite material to NMA by supportingit with a three-dimensional (3D) graphene aerogel (GA). With an easyfreeze-drying approach, NMA nanoparticles are properly dispersed ongraphene sheets, and GA creates a strong and conductive framework,significantly improving the structure and conductivity. The structureof the pure NMA and NMA/graphene aerogel (NMA/GA) composite was investigatedby X-ray diffraction (XRD) and field emission scanning electron microscopy(FE-SEM). XRD and FE-SEM analyses clearly indicated that ultrapureNMA structures are homogeneously dispersed among the GAs. In addition,the composite structure was examined using transmission electron microscopy(TEM) to determine the dispersion mechanisms. The electrochemicalcycling performance of the pure NMA and NMA/GA composite was evaluatedby rate capacitance, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemicalimpedance spectroscopy (EIS). The synthesized NMA/GA was able to provide89.81% specific capacity retention after the 500th cycle at C/2. Theaverage charge/discharge rates of the obtained cathode show good electrochemicalresults and exhibit capacities of 190.2,186.3, 185.2, 176.2, 161.2,142.6,and 188.5 mAh g–1 at C/20, C/10, C/5, C, 3C, 5C,and C/20, respectively. EIS data showed an improvement in the impedanceof the composite containing GA. According to the results of the electrochemicaltests, NMA nanoparticles formed a conductive network with its porousstructure thanks to GA, formed a protective layer on the surface,prevented the side reactions between the cathode and the electrolyte,decreased the impedance of the cathode, and increased the redox kinetics.In addition, the changes in the structure were investigated in theNMA/GA composite cathode by XRD, FE-SEM, and Raman analyses at theend of the 50th, 250th, and 500th cycles. In summary, the NMA/GA cathodeis expected to play an important role in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)by taking advantage of its easy synthesis and excellent cycle stability.

This paper addresses the Solar Activity cause and effect of climate change and their various impacts. Earth’s climate is determined by complex interactions among the Sun, oceans, atmosphere, cryosphere, land surface and biosphere. The Sun is the principal driving force for Earth’s weather and climate. The Sun’s energy is distributed unevenly on Earth’s surface due to the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation. Over the course of a year, the angle of rotation results in equatorial areas receiving more solar energy than those near the poles. As a result, the tropical oceans and land masses absorb a great deal more heat than the other regions of Earth. The atmosphere and oceans act together to redistribute this heat. As the equatorial waters warm air near the ocean surface, it expands, rises and drifts towards the poles; cooler denser air from the subtropics and the poles moves toward the equator to take its place. This continual redistribution of heat is modified by the planet’s west to east rotation and the Coriolis force associated with the planet’s spherical shape, giving rise to the high jet streams and the prevailing westerly trade winds. The winds, in turn, along with Earth’s rotation, drive large ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Humboldt Current in the South Pacific, and the North and South Equatorial Currents. Ocean currents redistribute warmers waters away from the tropics towards the poles. The ocean and atmosphere exchange heat and water, carbon dioxide and other gases. By its mass and high heat capacity, the ocean moderates climate change from season to season and year to year. These complex, changing atmospheric and oceanic patterns help determine Earth’s weather and climate. Scientists all over the world are making predictions about the ill effects of Global warming and connecting events. The effect of global warming is increasing the average temperature of the Earth. A rise in Earth’s temperatures can in turn root to other alterations in the ecology, including an increasing sea level and modifying the quantity and pattern of rainfall. These modifications may boost the occurrence and concentration of severe climate events, such as floods, famines, heat waves, tornados, and twisters. Other consequences may comprise of higher or lower agricultural outputs, glacier melting, lesser summer stream flows, genus extinctions and rise in the ranges of disease vectors. As an effect of global warming species like golden toad, harlequin frog of Costa Rica has already become extinct. There are number of species that have a threat of disappearing soon as an effect of global warming. As an effect of global warming various new diseases have emerged lately. These diseases are occurring frequently due to the increase in Earths average temperature since the bacteria can survive better in elevated temperatures and even multiply faster when the conditions are favorable. The global warming is extending the distribution of mosquitoes due to the increase in humidity levels and their frequent growth in warmer atmosphere. Various diseases due to ebola, hanta and machupo virus are expected due to warmer climates. The marine life is also very sensitive to the increase in temperatures. The effect of global warming will definitely be seen on some species in the water. A survey was made in which the marine life reacted significantly to the changes in water temperatures. It is expected that many species will die off or become extinct due to the increase in the temperatures of the water, whereas various other species, which prefer warmer waters, will increase tremendously. Perhaps the most disturbing changes are expected in the coral reefs that are expected to die off as an effect of global warming. The global warming is expected to cause irreversible changes in the ecosystem and the behavior of animals

This paper addresses the cause and effect of climate change and their various impacts. Earth's climate is determined by complex interactions among the Sun, oceans, atmosphere, cryosphere, land surface and biosphere. The Sun is the principal driving force for Earth's weather and climate. The Sun's energy is distributed unevenly on Earth's surface due to the tilt of Earth's axis of rotation. Over the course of a year, the angle of rotation results in equatorial areas receiving more solar energy than those near the poles. As a result, the tropical oceans and land masses absorb a great deal more heat than the other regions of Earth. The atmosphere and oceans act together to redistribute this heat. As the equatorial waters warm air near the ocean surface, it expands, rises and drifts towards the poles; cooler denser air from the subtropics and the poles moves toward the equator to take its place. This continual redistribution of heat is modified by the planet's west to east rotation and the Coriolis force associated with the planet's spherical shape, giving rise to the high jet streams and the prevailing westerly trade winds. The winds, in turn, along with Earth's rotation, drive large ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, the Humboldt Current in the South Pacific, and the North and South Equatorial Currents. Ocean currents redistribute warmers waters away from the tropics towards the poles. The ocean and atmosphere exchange heat and water, carbon dioxide and other gases. By its mass and high heat capacity, the ocean moderates climate change from season to season and year to year. These complex, changing atmospheric and oceanic patterns help determine Earth's weather and climate. Scientists all over the world are making predictions about the ill effects of Global warming and connecting events. The effect of global warming is increasing the average temperature of the Earth. A rise in Earth's temperatures can in turn root to other alterations in the ecology, including an increasing sea level and modifying the quantity and pattern of rainfall. These modifications may boost the occurrence and concentration of severe climate events, such as floods, famines, heat waves, tornados, and twisters. Other consequences may comprise of higher or lower agricultural outputs, glacier melting, lesser summer stream flows, genus extinctions and rise in the ranges of disease vectors. As an effect of global warming species like golden toad, harlequin frog of Costa Rica has already become extinct. There are number of species that have a threat of disappearing soon as an effect of global warming. As an effect of global warming various new diseases have emerged lately. These diseases are occurring frequently due to the increase in Earths average temperature since the bacteria can survive better in elevated temperatures and even multiply faster when the conditions are favorable. The global warming is extending the distribution of mosquitoes due to the increase in humidity levels and their frequent growth in warmer atmosphere. Various diseases due to ebola, hanta and machupo virus are expected due to warmer climates. The marine life is also very sensitive to the increase in temperatures. The effect of global warming will definitely be seen on some species in the water. A survey was made in which the marine life reacted significantly to the changes in water temperatures. It is expected that many species will die off or become extinct due to the increase in the temperatures of the water, whereas various other species, which prefer warmer waters, will increase tremendously. Perhaps the most disturbing changes are expected in the coral reefs that are expected to die off as an effect of global warming. The global warming is expected to cause irreversible changes in the ecosystem and the behavior of animals.

Carbon capture and geological storage (CCS) is a core element in the global strategy to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This paper characterizes and contrasts the emission quantification methods associated with CCS projects from the perspective of voluntary emission reduction initiatives and recent regulatory reporting requirements under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program (GHGRP). From the regulatory perspective, the U.S. EPA is addressing the mandatory GHG reporting for CO2 injection and potential geological storage, providing a different approach for facilities that supply CO2 to the market, those that inject CO2 for purposes of enhanced oil and gas recovery, and those that are engaging in long-term geological storage. Information gathered under the GHGRP will enable EPA to track the amount of CO2 supplied to the market, injected, and/or stored by U.S. facilities. In addition, where the CO2 injection facilities are also associated with other oil and gas operations, the GHGRP requires quantifying and reporting GHG emissions from those operations where the facilities meet specified regulatory thresholds. This information will be a key element in providing baseline data and activity information for the development of future emission standards and control techniques for GHG emission mitigation in the U.S. In addition to reporting initiatives, industry is providing guidance to support voluntary GHG reduction initiatives. The American Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) have collaborated on a guideline document to promote the credible, consistent, and transparent quantification of GHG emission reductions from CCS projects (IPIECA/API, 2007). This document emphasizes that the entire range of activities associated with CCS - capture, transport, injection and storage - must be considered in quantifying emissions and emission reductions from CCS operations. This paper will examine common aspects and notable differences between the mandatory reporting programs and voluntary GHG emission reduction activities. It will specifically emphasize collateral characteristics such as the scope of emission sources, accuracy of quantification methods, reporting and monitoring requirements. Introduction to CCS CCS applies established technologies to capture, transport and store CO2 emissions from large point sources. Wide deployment of CCS techniques is viewed as essential for addressing climate change, while also providing energy security, creating jobs, and economic prosperity. The International Energy Agency (IEA) states that CCS could reduce global CO2 emissions by 19%, and that without CCS, overall costs to reduce emissions to 2005 levels by 2050 would increase by 70% (IEA, 2009). CCS refers to the chain of processes that are designed to collect or capture a CO2 gas stream, transport the CO2 to a storage location, and inject the CO2 into a geological formation1 for long-term isolation from the atmosphere (See Figure 1). CCS involves avoiding the release of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by injecting CO2 and ultimately storing it in a geological formation. The assessment of GHG emission reductions from CCS projects should address all of these elements.

The increasing extent of greenhouse gas emissions has necessitated the development of techniques for atmospheric carbon dioxide removal and storage. Various techniques are being explored for carbon storage including geological sequestration. The geological sequestration has various avenues such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, coal-bed methane reservoirs, and mafic and ultramafic rocks. Different trapping mechanisms are in play in these subsurface storage systems. In these sequestration sites, the mafic and ultramafic rocks are best suited for long-term and effective sequestration as they comprise minerals, conducive for chemical alteration, forming stable carbonates. However, these sites often suffer from distinct disadvantages of injectivity issues due to their low permeability and porosity. This study investigates the potential of sequestration in the rock samples obtained from one such site located in India. The rock samples are first characterized using various techniques including X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The mineralogical characterization shows that the rock sample contains approximately 10% of diopside. The samples were put in the reactor chamber comprising CO2, which were then investigated using FESEM analysis. Additionally, a reservoir block simulation using commercial software was conducted with the representative minerals in the sample to evaluate the CO2 sequestration potential. The simulation result suggests the formation of magnesite which corresponds to a major part of CO2 mineral trapping. The reduced injectivity due to low porosity and permeability in this rock can be addressed using hydraulic fracturing. The geomechanical behavior of the rock sample for hydraulic fracturing is studied using the Brazilian disc test. The Monte Carlo-based uncertainty analysis was conducted using the tensile strength data of the sample. Results suggest that the most likely fracturing pressure is 2100 psi for this rock sample.

The activity of exploration and production in oil and gas industry is significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emission source. PT. XYZ is one of upstream oil and gas industry in Indonesia and it have large crude oil and gas potential with it reserves that not manage yet. Therefore, GHG emission potential from the activity of exploration and production in PT. XYZ is very large. This study is done for estimate GHG emission reduction potential in PT. XYZ from various activities. Emission inventory is the first step to estimate GHG released to atmosphere. Method of estimation use the method developed by American Petroleum Institute (API). This study considers three types of mitigation measures options, including technical options (scenario 1), behavior option (scenario 2), and policy option (scenario 3). Based on emission inventory, flare and oil storage tank are primary source of GHG emissions in PT. XYZ. Scenario 1 prefers control of GHG emissions in flare and storage tank as primary emission source. While others scenario prefers to control GHG emission from transportation sector. Scenario 1 has potential to reduce emissions by 48.3 %. While scenario 2, and 3 in sequences have potential to reduce emissions by 0.15%, and 0.52%. Emissions flare and oil storage tank can be reduced through the installation of flaring gas recovery unit and vapor recovery unit. Both are effective and efficient in reducing GHG emissions in PT. XYZ. In addition, all mitigation measures of transportation sector provide benefits even though the amount of GHG that can be reduced is not significant.

Peat is soft soil that often causes multiple problems to construction. Peat has low shear strength and high deformation characteristics. Thus, peat soil needs to be stabilized or treated. Study on peat stabilization has been conducted for decades with various admixtures and mixing formulations. This project intends to provide an overview of the solidification of peat soil and the factors that affecting the strength of solidified peat soil. Three types of peats which are fabric, hemic and sapric were used in this study to understand the differences on the effect. The understanding of the factors affecting strength of solidified peat in this study is limited to XRD and FESEM analysis only. Peat samples were collected at Pontian, Johor and Parit Raja, Johor. Peat soil was solidified using fly ash, bottom ash and Portland cement with two mixing formulation following literature review. The solidified peat were cured for 7 days, 14 days, 28 days and 56 days. All samples were tested using Unconfined Compressive Strength Test (UCS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM). The compressive strength test of solidified peat had shown consistently increase of sheer strength, qu for Mixing 1 while decrease of its compressive strength value for Mixing 2. All samples were tested and compared for each curing days. Through XRD, it is found that all solidified peat are dominated with pargasite and richterite. The highest qu is Fabric Mixing 1(FM1) with the value of 105.94 kPa. This sample were proven contain pargasite. Samples with high qu were observed to be having fly ash and bottom ash bound together with the help of pargasite. Sample with decreasing strength showed less amount of pargasite in it. In can be concluded that XRD and FESEM findings are in line with UCS values.

As petroleum companies throughout the world work to improve their understanding of potential contributions to human induced climate change, developing an inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is an important step for each company. In order to achieve consistent, meaningful data, it is important that petroleum companies have consistent definitions of what is included in the inventory, and use consistent methodologies for calculating the emissions. The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA), the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) have taken the lead in developing guidance for reporting of GHG emissions. A recently-completed IPIECA-led effort has led to the development of the Petroleum Industry Guidelines for Reporting Greenhouse Gas Emissions, which focuses on petroleum industry accounting and reporting of GHG emissions at the facility through the corporate level. The Guidelines were coordinated with API's Compendium of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimation Methodologies for the Oil and Gas Industry. The API Compendium has been developed to provide a consistent set of emission estimation methodologies for the petroleum industry. API is also providing a tool for estimating emissions, the SANGEA™ Energy and Emissions Estimating System. This paper will describe highlights of the Guidelines, the Compendium, and provide examples of how these documents can be used with the SANGEA™ software tool to develop a meaningful estimate of emissions from petroleum industry operations. Results, Observations and Conclusions: A credible, systematic approach, as embodied in the Petroleum Industry Guidelines and the API Compendium, provides strategic value to the petroleum industry as we address the climate change issue. By working towards a consistent standard for greenhouse gas emissions estimating, our industry improves its credibility and provides a foundation for future cooperative efforts among petroleum industry companies, regulators and other industries to address this important issue.

Harmonizing the quantification of CCS GHG emission reductions through oil and natural gas industry project guidelines

Understanding the sources and quantities of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is critical to developing an emissions inventory that accurately represents oil and natural gas industry operations. In response to continued interest by its member companies about consistency in emissions estimation, the American Petroleum Institute (API) developed a Compendium of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimation Methodologies for the Oil and Gas Industry. The Compendium is a result of more than a year long effort by API to screen, evaluate and document a range of calculation techniques and emission factors that could be useful for developing GHG emissions inventories. In this work all oil and gas industry segments from exploration and production to transportation, refining and distribution were considered. Particular emphasis has been placed on including estimation techniques that depend on knowledge of oil and gas processing simulation, along with a ranking of preferred and alternate methods. Initially distributed in June 2001 as a "Road-Test" document, API will continue to gather comments from end users and other interested parties for a one-year trial period. API has reached out to governmental, non-governmental and industry associations during the development process to ensure broad peer-review. Additional opportunities will be sought for further discussions prior to finalizing the document in 2002. This paper will summarize the technical approach adopted for the Compendium and introduce some of the techniques for estimating GHG emissions from specific oil and gas industry operations. It will discuss decisions that need to be made when designing a GHG emissions inventory. It will also present findings from users of the Compendium and feedback from end-user reviews.

Direct observation of the morphology of poly(urethane-imide) films, prepared by the reaction of a polyurethane prepolymer and poly(amide acid) as a precursor of polyimide, was performed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The poly(urethane-imide) films were plastic or elastic depending on the ratio of the two components. In the plastic films, TEM and FE-SEM analyses clearly showed the presence of urethane-rich domains in the imide-rich continuous phase. Under the higher magnification of TEM, a lamella structure was clearly observed inside the urethane-rich domains. The size and the number of the urethane-rich domains varied with the chemical structure and the ratio of the two components. It was confirmed that the size of the urethane-rich domains in the poly(urethane-imide) films observed with TEM and FE-SEM was almost the same as that of the pores in the porous polyimide films obtained by pyrolyzing the poly(urethane-imide) films at 300–400 °C. In the elastic films, imide-rich domains were clearly seen in the urethane-rich continuous phase by the FESEM observation.

Global warming can intensify the soil organic matter (SOM) turnover, damaging soil health. Crop residues left on the soil are important to maintain a positive SOM budget and nutrient cycling. But, sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) straw has been removed from the field for bioenergy purposes. We hypothesize that global warming, together with straw removal, will negatively impact Brazil’s ethanol carbon footprint. Thus, we conducted an experiment under controlled conditions to evaluate the impacts of warming and straw removal on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil carbon and nitrogen storage, and nutrient cycling. Two soils (Rhodic Acrisol and Eutric Nitisol) were tested with three rates of sugarcane straw removal (no removal (NR): equivalent to 12 Mg ha−1; medium removal (MR): 6 Mg ha−1; and total removal (TR): bare soil) and submitted to two temperatures (24 °C and 30 °C) and soil moistures (30% and 50%). Straw decomposition was stimulated by lower rates of straw removal, resulting in increases on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions between 5 to 14 times, and N2O between 25 and 40%. There were no significant methane (CH4) fluxes. Soil carbon and nitrogen did not change due to straw removal, yet labile carbon fractions (living and non-living) were highly impacted, causing reductions of 15 to 40% on the carbon management index (CMI). Furthermore, straw removal reduced nutrient cycling between 10 and 30%. Overall, in a scenario of warming, our findings point to an intensification of SOM dynamic, resulting in increases of 35% on the GHG emissions and a CMI reduction by 20%. In practical terms, at least 6 Mg ha−1 of straw should be left in the field, guaranteeing raw-material for bioenergy, without causing major impacts on the GHG emission and soil attributes.

Collective guilt mediates the effect of beliefs about global warming on willingness to engage in mitigation behavior

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) is a well-known efficient nanomaterial for the immobilization of heavy metals and has been widely applied in the remediation of contaminated groundwater and soils. In this study, a series of field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) analyses, vane shear tests, triaxial compression tests, and oedometer tests was conducted on lead-contaminated clay using four dosages of nZVI treatment (0.2%, 1%, 5%, and 10%). The geotechnical properties, including basic index properties, stiffness, shear strength, and compressibility, were assessed after the reaction procedure. FESEM analysis was performed to explore the potential mechanisms of nZVI treatment in terms of morphological characteristics. It was found that the plasticity index decreased gradually with increasing nZVI dosage. Treating contaminated soil with nZVI caused an increase in the vane shear strength, stiffness, and friction angle. The compression index increased gradually because of the nZVI treatment. Based on the FESEM analysis, a conclusion can be deduced that larger aggregates and conjoined structures resulting from nZVI treatment can lead to the strengthening of lead-contaminated clay.

Background: Adsorption is a process in which some of the components in the fluid phase, are selectively transferred to the surface of the porous solid particles in the filled bed, which is called the adsorbent. The aim of this study was to examine the adsorption effectiveness of CO2 by activated carbon functionalized with methyl diethanolamine (MDEA), as well as the effects of adsorption temperature, the total pressure of adsorption, and mass of adsorbent. Methods: Activated carbon was first produced using the desired biomasses and suitable activated carbon was chosen. The activated carbon was then functionalized with MDEA amination method. The crystal structure of adsorbents was studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. In addition, the porosity, specific surface area and structure of prepared activated carbon were measured using BET techniques. Finally, the morphology and strength of the functional groups were measured using Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses. Results: The findings of the FESEM and BET analyses for functionalized activated carbon revealed that the specific surface area of the adsorbent increased throughout the chemical and physical modification process, resulting in a BET amount of 725/84 m2 /g. The results showed that the selectivity of the functionalized activated carbon is greater than that of the non-functionalized adsorbent. Conclusion: The adsorption capacity of functionalized activated carbon was 3.98 mmol CO2 g-1 sorbent, compared to 2.587 mmol CO2 g-1 sorbent in the non-functionalized carbon, indicating a 35% improvement in the efficiency of the functionalized sample. According to the findings of the desorption experiments, functionalized carbon shows a 25% decrease in CO2 adsorption efficiency after 20 desorption steps.