Analysing the robustness of spice chains in Nepal from a smallholder perspective

This study assesses the performance of supply chains for ginger and large cardamom, two major export crops produced in Nepal. In particular, it aims to identify factors that constrain marketing choices available to smallholders, so limiting the chain’s robustness from their perspective. A qualitative case study method was used to gather and analyse data on farmer-buyer dyads in the ginger and cardamom chains. These case studies were informed by a conceptual model based on Transaction Cost Economics. The analysis included a cross-case comparison to identify the effects of external attributes on the modes of engagement available to smallholders. Informal market trading was the only mode of smallholder engagement observed in both chains. However, there was evidence that smallholders had previously engaged in relational contracts in the ginger chain, and in ‘captive’ relational contracts in the cardamom chain. The analysis suggests that access to other modes of engagement is constrained mainly by under-investment in value-adding assets. Traditional cooperatives can and do help to resolve problems of asymmetric information and high unit transaction costs, but more innovative cooperative models are required to encourage the investment needed to finance value-adding assets and activities.

Both black (B) and green (G) cardamom are used as flavours during food preparation. This study investigated the responses to B and G in a diet-induced rat model of human metabolic syndrome. Male Wistar rats were fed either a corn starch-rich diet (C) or a high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet with increased simple sugars along with saturated and trans fats (H) for 16 weeks. H rats showed signs of metabolic syndrome leading to visceral obesity with hypertension, glucose intolerance, cardiovascular remodelling and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Food was supplemented with 3% dried B or G for the final eight weeks only. The major volatile components were the closely related terpenes, 1,8-cineole in B and α-terpinyl acetate in G. HB (high-carbohydrate, high-fat + black cardamom) rats showed marked reversal of diet-induced changes, with decreased visceral adiposity, total body fat mass, systolic blood pressure and plasma triglycerides, and structure and function of the heart and liver. In contrast, HG (high-carbohydrate, high-fat + green cardamom) rats increased visceral adiposity and total body fat mass, and increased heart and liver damage, without consistent improvement in the signs of metabolic syndrome. These results suggest that black cardamom is more effective in reversing the signs of metabolic syndrome than green cardamom.

Herbs are being widely explored to discover alternatives to synthetic antibacterial agents.Small Cardamom often referred to as queen of spices because of its very pleasant aroma and taste, have a history as old as human race. Most people use cardamom as a spice and are largely unaware of its numerous health benefits. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of water and alcoholic cardamom extracts on sensitivities, growth, and adherence of Mutans streptococci in vitro. Materials and Methods: In this study, saliva was collected from ten volunteers (College students 18-22 years). Agar well technique was used to study the sensitivities of Mutans streptococci to different concentrations of small cardamom extracts and other control agents, also the effects of small cardamom extracts on viable counts, adherence of Mutans streptococci were studied Results: According to agar well diffusion methods, both cardamom extracts were effective in inhibition of Mutans streptococci, but still weaker than chlorhexidine gluconate 0.2%. Alcoholic extracts showed higher zone of inhibition compared to the same concentration of water with high significance differences (P<0.01). The effects of 10%, 15%, and 20% of both water and alcohol extracts of small cardamom were tested on the viability counts of Mutans streptococci in vitro. Highly significant reduction in the counts of bacteria was reported of both cardamom extracts and CHX in comparison to control without agents after 24 hr. Both cardamom extracts less effective than CHX. All the concentration of water and alcohol cardamom mouth washes tested was not effective in prevention the adherence of bacteria on teeth surface in vitro, while CHX was effective in prevention the adherence of bacteria. Conclusion: Cardamom extracts were effective against Mutans streptococci, but still less than CHX. Keyword: Mutans Streptococci, Small Cardamom, Chlorhexidine, De-ionized water. (J Bagh Coll Dentistry 2013;

Introduction: Resistance to commonly used anthelmintic drugs has been reported in many areas of the world. Natural products are good candidates for discovering more effective anthelmintic compounds. This study assessed the In-vitro activity of extracts from Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale and Elettaria cardamomum. Methods: This study was an In-vitro experimental study involving Apporrectodea longa earthworms. The worms were treated with 20mls of both distilled water and ethanolic extracts of all plant species (at 20, 40 and 60mg/ml). Albendazole was used as a standard drug. Paralysis and death time were recorded. Results: The paralysis time for water extracts were 0.83 hrs, 1.22 hrs and 3.33 hrs at 20mg/ml for Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale and Curcuma longa respectively while death time was 2.00 hrs, 1.50 hrs and 7.61 hrs for Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale and Curcuma longa respectively. The paralysis time for ethanol extracts were 0.50 hrs, 0.58 hrs and 0.70 hrs at 20mg/ml for Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale and Curcuma longa respectively while death time was 1.00 hrs, 1.00 hrs and 1.64 hrs for Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale and Curcuma longa respectively. Elettaria cardamomum and Zingiber officinale recorded shorter paralysis time than albendazole at 20mg/ml. Conclusion: Zingiber officinale and Elettaria cardamomum have recorded promising In-vitro activity warranting for pharmacological and toxicological investigations.

The ovicidal and repellent effects of 11 spice powders against the pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis L. and C. maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) on stored chickpea and black gram, respectively was investigated. The spice powders of black cumin, black pepper, cinnamon, clove, coriander, cumin, green cardamom, large cardamom, nutmeg, red pepper and Trigonella were used throughout the experiment. The data were recorded on oviposition after 30, 60 and 100 days and repellent activity after 1 to 5 hours of treatment doses of 25 and 37.5 mg/g spice powders, which were applied with chickpea and black gram seed on C. chinensis L. and C. maculatus (F.), respectively. Minimum number of oviposition was observed in black pepper, clove and cinnamon treated pulses, while maximum number was recorded in control treatments. The ovicidal activity of the spice powders was in the order of black pepper &gt; clove &gt; cinnamon &gt; nutmeg &gt; black cumin &gt; cumin &gt; green cardamom &gt; red pepper &gt; coriander &gt; large cardamom &gt; Trigonella&gt; as control for C. chinensis L. and black pepper&gt; clove&gt; cinnamon&gt; nutmeg&gt; black cumin&gt; cumin&gt; green cardamom&gt; red pepper&gt; coriander&gt; Trigonella&gt; large cardamom&gt; as control for C. maculatus (F.). Black peeper, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg showed repellant activity against adult C. chinensis L., and black peeper, clove and cinnamon showed repellant activity against adult C. maculatus (F.) while the others spices did not show any repellency.Bangladesh J. Zool. 44(1): 51-59, 2016

Subclinical Hypothyroidism is defined as a condition in which the serum thyroid stimulating hormone level is above the normal reference range, but serum thyroxine T4 and tri iodo thyronine T3 levels (free and total) are within the normal range. The majority of patients with Subclinical Hypothyroidism show no clinical features of thyroid dysfunction. In a large screening population, the overall percentage of SCH ranges from 5 to 10%. In this clinical study, a polyherbal Unani formulation Jawarish e Bisbasa consisting of bisbasa (Myristica fragrans), zanjabeel (Zingiber officinalis), asarun (Valeriana wallichii), taj qalmi (Cinnamomum cassia), darchini (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), filfil siyah (Piper nigrum), qaranfal (Szygium aromaticum), filfil daraz (Piper longum), heel khurd (Elettaria cardamomum), heel kalan (Amomum subulatum) in the form of extract, was tested and found highly significant in terms of efficacy as well as safety. The test formulation (hydroalcoholic extract) was well tolerated and no adverse/ side effects were observed during the entire period of protocol therapy in any patient in the test group. The dosing load was also reduced to one-tenth of its semisolid form.

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum), an important spice crop grown in eastern sub‐Himalayan mountains of India, is affected by a viral disease commonly known as ‘chirke’, which is characterised by light and dark green streaks on the leaf lamina. Although chirke has been known to affect large cardamom for over 50 years, its distribution in large cardamom growing regions and aetiology have remained unaddressed. In this study for the first time, distribution of chirke in the major large cardamom growing regions in India has been determined. North Sikkim and eastern region of Darjeeling hills were endemic region with average disease incidence of 19.2–35%, whereas, Mirik region of Darjeeling hills were free from the disease. Suckers, the commonly used planting material, were the major source for spread of the disease. The virus was sap transmissible to the popular large cardamom cultivars Golsey, Ramsey, Swaney and Varlangey and vectored by Rhopalosiphum maidis and Myzus persicae in a non‐persistent manner. Flexuous virus particles measuring 625–650 × 12.5 nm were observed consistently associated with the diseased samples. Polyclonal antiserum to the purified virus showed serological affinity with a macluravirus, cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV) associated with a similar disease known as katte disease of small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) occurring in southern India. The 3′ terminal genome sequence (1776 nucleotides) of the virus was determined, which revealed a close sequence identity and phylogenetic relationships with the members of the genus Macluravirus. The deduced amino acid sequence of putative coat protein (CP) gene showed maximum similarity of 65.7% with the CdMV. Phylogenetic analysis based on CP and 3′ UTR showed that the virus was closer to Alpinia mosaic virus, CdMV and Chinese yam necrotic mosaic virus subclade. The results suggest that the virus associated with the chirke disease of large cardamom is a new species under the genus Macluravirus in the family Potyviridae for which the name large cardamom chirke virus (LCCV) is proposed.

Role of Different in-situ Soil Moisture Conservation Practices on Growth of Large Cardamom in Sikkim A field experiment was conducted during 2014-15 at Indian Cardamom Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Spices Board research farm in Kabi (1567 m amsl) Sikkim. Among the moisture conservation practices, treatment having trench across slope duly filled with biomass recorded the significantly higher number of immature tillers (5.98 & 5.79), mature tillers (4.01 & 5.82) and vegetative buds (4.00) per large cardamom clump. With respect to soil moisture content, all the soil moisture conservation practices significantly improved the soil moisture content over the control at all the stages of observation. Among the soil moisture conservation practices, surface mulching recorded significantly higher values of soil moisture i.e. 21.00, 21.50, 19.60, 17.60 and 21.70 per cent on 30th November 2014, 31st December 2014, 31st January 2015, 28th February 2015 and 31st March 2015 respectively. Surface mulching conserved higher soil moisture as compared to the control.

Medicinal plants are fundamental sources of bioactive compounds that possess significant antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. They are commonly utilized in culinary, aromatic, and traditional medicine applications. This study presents a comparative analysis of the aqueous methanolic extracts of nine conventional plants—Cinnamomum verum, Cuminum cyminum, Curcuma longa, Syzygium aromaticum, Cassia angustifolia, Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale, Foeniculum vulgare, and Ocimum basilicum—focusing on their antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. The extracts were evaluated against various pathogenic strains, including Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and Plasmodium chabaudi. Elettaria cardamomum exhibited the strongest antibacterial activity, followed closely by Cassia angustifolia, Syzygium aromaticum, and Zingiber officinale, while Cinnamomum verum exhibited no antibacterial activity. Curcuma longa, Cassia angustifolia, and Elettaria cardamomum demonstrated notable antifungal properties. Elettaria cardamomum and Cassia angustifolia achieved high antimalarial activity against Plasmodium chabaudi, while Foeniculum vulgare and Ocimum basilicum exhibited moderate inhibition. Furthermore, the extracts displayed varying tendencies to scavenge DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, with Cinnamomum verum being the most effective in radical scavenging. The observed differences in biological activity are attributed to the unique phytochemical profiles of the plants, suggesting their potential as natural alternatives for managing infections and oxidative stress. Our findings highlight the significance of exploring medicinal plants for sustainable healthcare solutions, particularly in the context of rising antimicrobial resistance, while suggesting that further research into their synergistic effects and broader applications in food and health could enhance their therapeutic potential. The study highlights the significant antimicrobial activity of various plant extracts, with Elettaria cardamomum and Cassia angustifolia showing strong antibacterial and antifungal properties, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria and certain fungi. These effects are attributed to bioactive compounds that disrupt microbial cell structures and induce oxidative stress. Additionally, the plants demonstrated varying antioxidant activities, with Cinnamomum verum exhibiting strong radical scavenging capabilities, while Curcuma longa showed the weakest effects. The differences in antioxidant potential are linked to the unique phytochemical profiles of each plant, which include flavonoids, phenolics, and essential oils.

Elettaria cardamomum and Amomum subulatum fruits were easily available and commonly used in our day –to-day life. The present study aimed at the in-vitro comparative study of anthelmintic activity of aqueous extracts of fruits of Elettaria cardamomum, Amomum subulatum and mixed. The fruits were extracted separately with distilled water by maceration method .The various concentrations of the extract (50,100, 200mg/ml) respectively were screened for their anthelmintic activity using Pheritima posthuma. The activity was comparable with the standard drug albendazole. When the concentrations of the extract are increased, a gradual increase in anthelmintic activity is observed. The study involved the determination of time of paralysis (P) and time of death (D) of the worms. Aqueous extract of Elettaria cardamomum, Amomum subulatum and mixed showed anthelmintic activity but mixed extract was more efficient anthelmintic activity against Indian earthworms. The data were found statistically significant by using one way ANOVA (P&lt; 0.001). Further studies are suggested to isolate the active principles responsible for the activity.

The Roman and Islamic spice trade: New archaeological evidence

There is a great potential for commercialization of spiced RTS beverages as natural health drinks from major and under exploited fruits not only in domestic but also at the export front. The present study portrays the nutrient content of spiced pineapple ready-to-serve beverages during fresh period. The pineapple RTS beverages were processed with extracts of ginger, green chillies, pepper, cardamom and nutmeg. The combined spices extracts such as ginger + pepper, ginger + cardamom and ginger + nutmeg were blended with pineapple juice and prepared the RTS beverages. The spiced pineapple RTS was standardized based on organoleptic evaluation. The nutrient content such as Total Soluble Solids (TSS), pH, acidity, reducing sugar, total sugar, tannin, β-carotene, ascorbic acid and non enzymatic browning were analysed. The sensory evaluation revealed that the all the beverages had good sensory properties except B 2 and B 3 beverages

Diabetes is a major problem affecting 387 million adults with a global prevalence of (8.3%) and is expected to increase to (10.1%) by 2035. The government recommends the use of herbal medicine as an effort to prevent and control diabetes mellitus. Potential herbal medicines that have antidiabetic effects are the family Zingiberaceae. Several in vitro studies on species of the Zingiberaceae showed antidiabetic activity by inhibiting the activity of the enzymes α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase. However, one problem related to the use of antidiabetic herbs from the Zingiberaceae is the lack of scientific studies showing the effects of the plants used. This scoping review aims to map clinical research evidence of the antidiabetic effects of Zingiberaceae in patients with diabetes mellitus. Using a scoping review methodology, article searches through computerized databases, namely: PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus, and search manually used English and Indonesian keywords. The initial search found 1239 articles, then filtered according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria such articles use the RCTs method that mentions the antidiabetic effect of Zingeberaceae family in English or Indonesian in the last 5 years (2017-2021). The results of the study showed 31 articles that met the requirements. 3 types of Zingiberaceae plants had antidiabetic effects, namely Curcuma longa (turmeric) with curcumin/nano-curcumin compounds, Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom), and Zingiber officinale (ginger) which can reduce HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, and insulin resistance in patients with diabetes mellitus with minimal side effects.

The use and search for antibiotics derived from plants have been accelerated in recent years. Three plants, used traditionally as medicine and as food additives were collected and extracted with hot water, methanol, diethyl-ether, ethyl acetate and chloroform. The used plants were Solanum incanum, Elettaria cardamomum and Zingiber officinale. The plant extracts were screened for their inhibitory effects on eight bacterial and seven fungal pathogens using agar well diffusion method. It was shown that methanol extract was more effective as compared to hot water, diethyl-ether, ethyl acetate and chloroform extracts. Inhibition zone diameters of the methanol extracts of the used plants ranged from 10 to 29 mm and minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) from 50 to 150 μg/ml. No toxicity was found using Artimia salina as test organism. Antitumor activity against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and Lymphoma cell line was recorded only for S. incanum extract

From ancient civilization, spices and herbs have played an important role in the lifestyle of people around the world. As Spices are being used from generation to generation as food additives and traditional medicines, these have been used as study materials to investigate its different bioactive properties and phytochemicals for their potential usage in the pharmaceutical industries. Phytochemicals are the compounds produced by plants, but not directly used for the growth and development rather engaged in protection against environmental and pathogenic stress. Plant materials were collected and water extraction method was applied for the preparation of extracts. After extraction all of the experiments were done according to standard protocols. Our study focused on the screening of the presence of valuable phytochemicals in ten widely used spices in Bangladesh. Among phytochemical screened tannin, glycosides and phenolic compounds are most abundant in all spices. The highest phenolic content was found in Syzygium aromaticum (67.77 µg GAE/ml of extract) and the lowest phenolic content was found in Coriandrum sativum (4.22 µg GAE/ml of extract). Among the spices, Myristica fragrans contained the highest tannin content (78.75 µg TAE/ml Extract) and Elettaria cardamomum contained the lowest tannin content (61 µg TAE/ml Extract). The study also employed the antibacterial activity of the spices extracts. The extracts showed the strongest antibacterial activity against the gram-positive bacteria when compared to the gram-negative bacteria. The highest zone of inhibition for Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Salmonella typhi were found 8.31 mm, 10.4 mm and 8.61 mm in Nigella sativa, Elettaria cardamomum and Amomum subulatum respectively, and the lowest zone of inhibition for Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Salmonella typhi were found 5.18 mm, 5.36 mm and 5.86 mm in Coriandrum sativum, Coriandrum sativum and Syzygium aromaticum respectively. Thin layer chromatographic (TLC) analysis was also done to check the presence of phyto-constituents. Our study revealed several spots (From 1 to 3) for different samples and their retention factors (Rf) were calculated. It is concluded that, results of these investigations had provided valuable information on further discovery of noble drugs.