An overview of access to and inequality in the education system of Viet Nam

PurposeThe objectives of this study are threefold: firstly, to measure the impact of educational inequality on income inequality, and per capita income; secondly, to measure the impact of gender inequality in education on income inequality, per capita income and educational inequality; and lastly, to test the Kuznets inverted U-shape hypothesis between inequality in education and average year of schooling.Design/methodology/approachThe study has adopted the Marin and Psacharopoulos (1976) model of human capital in which income earned by an individual can be estimated as a function of number of year spent in schooling or education. Gini coefficient is used as a measure of income inequality, while inequality in education is measured by Gini index of educational inequality. Gender inequality in education is measured by the difference between male and female enrolment ratios as a proportion of male enrolment. The study utilizes the data of six South Asian countries, i.e. Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka from 1980 to 2010 at five-year average and employs fixed effect model (FEM) and random effect model (REM) for estimation.FindingsResult suggests that educational inequality and average year of schooling have positive and significant impact on income inequality. Primary (basic) education and tertiary (higher) education reduce income inequality, while secondary education widens income inequality. Negative relationship exists between educational inequality and per capita income. Unequal distribution of education among boys and girls at primary level increases income inequality, while reduces income inequality at tertiary level. Gender inequality in secondary and tertiary level of education reduces per capita income, while unequal distribution of education among boys and girls further increases the educational inequality. Kuznets inverted U-shape hypothesis does not hold between education expansion and educational inequality, while weak U-shape relationship exists in South Asian countries.Practical implicationsGovernment has to provide free education in poor regions and makes employment programs to reduce the income and educational inequality respectively, while to remove gender inequality in education it is necessary to build more schools especially for girls. Government has to launch different online education programs for expansion in education at all levels.Originality/valueThis study adds to the literature by analyzing whether the inequality in income increases (decreases) due to increase (decrease) in educational and gender inequality in South Asian countries. This study contributes in the existing literature by developing a measure of educational and gender inequality in education in South Asian countries.Peer review The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-04-2020-0226.

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer among Canadian females. This study aimed to quantify and assess trends in education and income inequalities in the mortality rate of breast cancer in Canada from 1992 to 2019. We constructed a census division-level dataset pooled from the Canadian Vital Death Statistics Database (CVSD), the Canadian Census of the Population (CCP), and the National Household Survey (NHS) to examine trends in education and income inequalities in the mortality rate of breast cancer in Canada over the study period. The age-standardized Concentration index (C) was used to quantify income and education inequalities in breast cancer mortality over time. The national crude mortality rate of breast cancer has decreased in Canada from 1992 to 2019, with Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, and Quebec having the greatest decreases in mortality rate. The age-standardized C for education and income inequalities were always negative for all the study years, meaning that the mortality rate of breast cancer was higher among less-educated and poorer females. Moreover, the results indicate a growing trend in the concentration of breast cancer mortality among females with lower income and education from 1992 to 2019. The increasing concentration of breast cancer mortality among low socioeconomic status females remains a challenge in Canada. Continuous efforts are needed within Canadian healthcare systemto improve the prevention and treatment of breast cancer for this population.

Aims: Research is scarce regarding studies on income and educational inequality trends in cardiovascular disease in Sweden. The aim of this study was to assess trends in educational and income inequalities in first hospitalizations due to cardiovascular disease (CVD) from 1993 to 2010 among middle-aged women and men in Northern Sweden. Methods: The study comprised repeated cross-sectional register data from year 1993-2010 of all individuals aged 38-62 years enrolled in the Västerbotten Intervention Programme (VIP). Data included highest educational level, total earned income and first-time hospitalization for CVD from national registers. The relative and slope indices of inequality (RII and SII, respectively) were used to estimate educational and income inequalities in CVD for six subsamples for women and men, and interaction analyses were used to estimate trends across time periods. Results: Educational RII and SII were stable in women, while they decreased in men. Income inequalities in CVD developed differently compared with educational inequalities, with RII and SII for both men and women increasing during the study period, the most marked for RII in women rising from 1.52 in the 1990s to 2.62 in the late 2000s. Conclusions: The trend of widening income inequalities over 18 years in the middle-aged in Northern Sweden, in the face of stable or even decreasing educational inequalities, is worrisome from a public health perspective, especially as Swedish authorities monitor socioeconomical inequalities exclusively by education. The results show that certain social inequalities in CVD rise and persist even within a traditionally egalitarian welfare regime.

It has been a busy time for the Association of Education Finance and Policy (AEFP). Over the past few years the association has acquired a new name, a new journal, and many new members. The 2012 annual conference, convened in Boston last March, proved to be the largest conference in the association’s thirty-seven-year history, with 556 members in attendance. The theme, selected by incoming president Deborah Cunningham, was “Education Finance, Policy, and Practice: The Role of Evidence in a Dynamic World,” which underscores the contemporary challenge to the association: how to apply an increasing abundance of information and sophisticated analytical tools to produce the evidence needed to guide decision making by educational policy makers and practitioners. The Boston meeting was notable not only for the number in attendance. The unique qualities and strengths of the association were in clear display: papers of unusual methodological rigor; an interdisciplinary mix of academics from the social sciences, public policy schools, and colleges of education; educational finance professionals, policy analysts, and practitioners, a mix rarely found in the same place; and sessions addressing today’s hot topics as well as issues that have endured over the years. Having said this, all indications are that AEFP is what it has always been: a small, diverse group of people tackling some really big problems. Of particular note was a trend that has been growing for years but has clearly come into full flower: the large

In the context of rapid economic development and social transformation in China, this article, based on Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital, explores the phenomena of inequality in China's higher education and their impact on the reproduction of social strata. It first analyzes the inequalities in educational opportunities, processes, and outcomes, identifying family background, uneven distribution of educational resources, and deficiencies in the educational assessment system as the main factors contributing to these inequalities. Through empirical data, the article demonstrates how cultural capital is transmitted and accumulated within the education system, thereby affecting individuals' social mobility. Finally, the article proposes a series of policy recommendations, including optimizing the distribution of educational resources, reforming educational training and management systems, and improving educational assessment mechanisms, to reduce educational inequality. It also provides guidance for future research directions. These measures aim to promote educational equity, break the solidification of social strata, and achieve social harmony and progress.

This study aims to analyze the educational disparities among districts / cities and find out what factors affect educational inequality, the influence of educational inequality with GDP growth per capita in the province of Central Java. Data analysis method used in this study is education Gini index, with panel data regression analysis techniques Pooled EGLS. Based on the analysis of educational inequality between districts / cities and its implications in the province of Central Java is known that the calculation of Gini index of education in the province of Central Java is included in the category of low educational inequality (0.309), with contributors educational inequality is the inequality of education in districts and cities. In the first regression model it is known that the independent variable of government spending on education, and life expectancy negative effect on educational inequality significantly. While the gender gap variable is significantly positive effect on the dependent variable educational inequality. Variables that did not significantly influence educational inequality is the variable of income inequality. In the second regression model in mind that educational inequality has a significant negative effect on the growth of GDP per capita in the province of Central Java.

Young people’s perspectives on social and educational inequalities got little attention from broader social theory and have not been prioritised by childhood and youth studies. Similarly, secondary school students’ voices and qualitative experiences with education and education inequality have been missing, particularly in an Irish context. Educational inequality has persisted in Irish education since the state’s independence. The Irish government has partially addressed the issue by introducing the Delivering of Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) Plan. Despite some positive outcomes of this policy, students attending DEIS schools still experience lower educational outcomes than their peers from non-DEIS schools. DEIS schools encounter different levels of disadvantage, and they cater for a higher percentage of people with intellectual disabilities and often rely on the support provided by charities and philanthropies [Cahill, K. (2021). Intersections of social class and special educational needs in a DEIS post-primary school: School choice and identity. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 28, 7, 977–991; Fleming, B., & Harford, J. (2023). The DEIS programme as a policy aimed at combating educational disadvantage: Fit for purpose? Irish Educational Studies, 42(42), 381–399]. The context of this study is set as an all-girl post-primary school in the wider Cork area, which receives financial and study support from an external alternative education programme exposed to a broader evaluation conducted by UNESCO Child and Family Research Centre, University of Galway. Focus groups and photovoice were introduced to seek students’ experiences with the alternative education programme in the post-primary DEIS school context. Common findings emerging from the data are (a) social inequality and educational opportunities, (b)study and financial support provided by the alternative education programme, and (c) enhanced mental health and well-being. These findings contribute to a further understanding of young people’s experiences with educational inequality in an Irish DEIS school context and emphasise the role of external educational support programmes in tackling such challenges. Students' experiences with educational and broader socio-economic inequalities in Ireland, as presented in this paper, call for system change and policy reform in post-primary education.

Present study is intended to explore the impact of gender inequality in education on poverty by employing logistic regression on primary source of data collected through a field survey of Multan district. The study concluded that gender inequality in education has adverse impact on household poverty. The probability of household poverty falls with the increase in female-male primary, secondary and tertiary enrolment. The improvement in female-male literacy ratio also rejects probability of a household being poor. Household size and number of children less than five years age have positive association with probability of poverty while the variables, qualification of household head, age of household, professional or technical skills of household head and ownership of house are negatively associated with household poverty. The study suggested that eliminating gender inequality in education in all level may be helpful in empowering women, creating productive employment opportunities in both formal and informal sectors and alleviating poverty.

This study was conducted to find a more equitable education system for all students regardless of ethnicity, social status, gender, or even problems arising as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The effects of major factors that played a critical role on indicators of equity in education were analyzed. A data set from World Inequity Database on Education (WIDE) was used to gather information to estimate the inequity gap for different indicators and countries. The upper secondary completion rate was selected within this database to explore inequity in worldwide education and several stacked bar plots were drawn to describe the differences among demographics and incomes of countries. The learning achievement in reading(upper secondary) was chosen to explore inequity in education in Canada. A three-factor analysis model was built to study the effects of gender, location, wealth, and their interaction on learning achievement in reading. After model selection and model diagnosis, an additive model was chosen as the final model and it proved that there resided significant main effects. Also, a longitudinal model was built to explore whether observations of learning achievement in reading varied among the different years with four different levels as covariate variables. Three models related to repeated measures design were built, and the final model was chosen based on the AIC value. As a result, it provided a clear indication that the government should take responsibility and well-needed actions to eliminate inequity in education for many disparities that exist within comparisons between groups. Examples are: gender, rural or urban areas, and the social status of families.

The question of gender inequality in education and science has emerged as a central focus of international and national development agendas. However, the existence of inequality in academic and administrative structures reveals that equal academic access does not guarantee equal gender treatment. In the context of the given problem, the research aims to outline the structural characteristics of gender inequality in the education and science sector in Kazakhstan in relation to academic degree awarded, age, academic discipline, and administration. The results show that gender inequalities persist. Although women represent a majority of Master's degree holders and a large number of Candidates of Sciences and PhD holders and graduates, they remain underrepresented in substantial numbers in the category of Doctors of Science, thereby creating a strong “leaky pipe” effect. Analysis shows that younger generations have ensured greater gender equality; however, this does not ensure equality for senior academic staff. Horizontal segregation persists; women continue to represent education, health, and social sciences in large numbers, while men continue to represent fields like engineering and ICT. Analysis of senior administrative staff shows that women represent only a marginal number of heads in institutions offering general education and TVET. The results reveal that the inequality between the sexes in education and research in Kazakhstan is institutionally entrenched and cumulative. The study emphasizes that an effective policy for promoting gender equity should target not only access equity but also mobility, senior management, and field choice.

This paper delves into the conflictual nature of transformative education, exploring the intricate dynamics at the intersection of race and social class within educational structures, aiming to unravel the conflicts that shape and perpetuate educational, economic, and social inequalities. Drawing inspiration from influential thinkers such as Paulo Freire, Angela Davis, Ivan Illich, or Bell Hooks, the aim of this paper is to showcase the power dynamics and conflictual nature that lead to and are created by educational inequalities. The current scientific literature on the matter underscores the critical need to address conflicts within the educational system, shedding light on power dynamics and systemic oppressions present in traditional educational models, in a world affected by postcolonialism, immigration, or gentrification. Regarding this paper, the emphasis is placed on the intersectionality of race and class, and how they influence educational inequalities and lead to economic disparities. Moreover, critically analysing the current educational approaches contributes to understanding its flaws and how the field can or should improve in the future. The study examines how systemic educational inequalities contribute to conflict and sustain cycles of disadvantage, advocating for changes in traditional education to foster inclusivity. It challenges the Eurocentric views and will call for the emergence of an educational system that validates the diverse cultural experience of all races, this being motivated by the need of inclusive and equitable educational environments. Insights urge policymakers, educators, and researchers to address root causes of conflict for positive change. The paper contributes by synthesising ideas from transformative education, offering nuanced perspectives on the impacts of race and social class in the educational processes. This foundation informs future research and actionable steps toward creating more equitable and inclusive educational systems. The contribution lies in deepening understanding and provoking critical discourse on transformative approaches to traditional education amid systemic conflicts.

Despite evidence of the increased risk of psychotic disorders among ethnic minority adults, little is known about the effect of ethnic minority status to mild psychotic experiences among adolescents. This study investigated mild psychotic experiences in ethnic minority and majority adolescents in a Dutch representative general population sample, and tested the ethnic density effect in the classroom. The CAPE was used to assess mild psychotic experiences among Dutch (n=3,606) and non-Western ethnic minority pupils (n=769). Ethnic minority adolescents showed higher levels of grandiosity and delusions than their ethnic majority peers, whereas no differences were found for hallucinations, paranormal beliefs and paranoia between both groups of adolescents. The ethnic density effect was partly confirmed for the ethnic majority: a decrease of ethnic majority pupils in class increased their feelings of paranoia. Because only some dimensions of mild psychotic experiences were affected by ethnic minority status or the interaction between ethnic minority status and ethnic class composition, our findings emphasize that mild psychotic experiences are multifactorial in origin, with different underlying processes.

The fourth goal of the SDGs calls for the increase in access to quality education and the redress of educational inequalities. Monitoring progress towards this goal requires paying attention to changes in educational quality and inequality, not just to changes in average quality. Between 2000 and 2007, Lesotho implemented a multifaceted Free Primary Education programme that included fee eliminations, school-building, and teacher-recruitment components to increase school access and minimise the adverse effects on education quality. During this period, enrolment and average educational achievement increased. However, we do not know whether the increase in average performance was driven by all or just a few gifted students and how it affected educational inequality. This paper fills this knowledge gap by using grade 6 standardised test scores and employing the relative distribution method to analyse changes in educational achievement and educational inequality between 2000 and 2007 in Lesotho. Results show that, although educational achievement of all students increased during this period, much of the increase in overall educational achievement was attributable to improved performance of low- and high-achieving students. This increase in performance at the lower and upper tails of the performance distribution led to an increase in educational achievement and educational inequality, especially in reading proficiency. Further, changes in students’ compositional changes explain the increase in educational achievement.

BackgroundMedical students from ethnic minorities underperform in knowledge and skills assessments both in pre-clinical and clinical education compared to the ethnic majority group. Motivation, which influences learning and academic performance of medical students, might play an important role in explaining these differences, but is under-investigated. This study aimed to compare two types of motivation (autonomous and controlled) of ethnic minority (Western and non-Western) and majority (Dutch) students, and their association with academic performance.MethodsIn a cross-sectional study, all students of a Dutch medical school were invited to complete a survey including the Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire, measuring autonomous and controlled motivation, in the academic year 2015–2016. Motivation was compared using Kruskal-Wallis test and performance was compared using One-Way ANOVA. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the association between motivation and performance (grade point average; GPA).ResultsThe response rate was 38.6% (n = 947). Autonomous motivation (AM) of non-Western students was higher than that of Dutch students in pre-clinical and clinical education (p < 0.05). Controlled motivation was higher in Western students than in Dutch students (pre-clinical education; p < 0.05). AM was associated with a higher GPA for Dutch (pre-clinical education; β = 0.33, p < 0.05) and Western students (clinical education; β = 0.57, p < 0.05) only.ConclusionsOur results show significant differences in the type of motivation between the ethnic majority and minority groups. The association of motivation with performance also differs between ethnic groups. We found that AM has a positive influence on GPA. Further research is needed to uncover the underlying mechanisms.

The global pandemic of COVID-19 has had a profound impact on many spheres of social life across the world. One of them has been the deepening of social inequalities and the aggravating of discrimination based on gender. Emerging studies in the field of education and occupation systems point to the fact that women seem to have been particularly affected, along with layoffs in those sectors of the economy where female staffs prevail. Additionally, in many countries, the burden of combining professional careers and supporting the education of young children falls disproportionately on mothers. These transformations pose a challenge to meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, wherein gender equality is an important factor. This article uses official statistical data to examine gender and educational structures during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland, set against the backdrop of other European nations and analyzed in the context of sustainability. Have educational and gender inequalities been exacerbated as data from other countries suggest? In order to answer this question, the article traces changes in the education system in Poland and their implications for gender structures. The latter have also been affected by transformations on the labor market in various sectors of the economy, therefore, the second part of the analysis focuses on the labor market changes during the pandemic. The final section offers conclusions on the implications of the pandemic for the studied issues. Throughout the article, we apply the principles of unobtrusive research. Following the theoretical framework outlined in the first part of the paper, we carry out a descriptive analysis of existing statistical data collected by the Eurostat. These official statistics are supplemented by an overview of public opinion polls to allow for perspectives on structural changes, as they are perceived by those affected by them.