An exploration of psychological capital resources, mindfulness, L2 grit, and L2 achievement: An explanatory mixed-methods study

Emotions are attracting growing attention in second language acquisition (SLA), especially with the advent of positive psychology (PP). The fundamental role of emotions in affecting learners' second language (L2) achievement has been well-documented. Evidence also indicates that emotions can significantly influence learners' L2 learning engagement which profoundly impacts their academic performance. However, the links between emotions, engagement, and L2 achievement remain underexplored. To contribute to this research domain, the present study sought to unpack the relationships between learners' emotions, such as foreign language enjoyment (FLE), foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), and foreign language learning boredom (FLLB), and engagement as well as their English achievement. A total of 907 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) from a university in China were recruited to complete an online questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to test the hypothesized relations among the variables. Results revealed correlations between learners' FLE, FLCA, and FLLB. Furthermore, learners' engagement was found to mediate the relationships between their emotions (FLE, FLCA, and FLLB) and English achievement. The findings broaden the nomological network of emotions and engagement in the EFL context, and provide evidence for the mechanism underlying the relationships between emotions, engagement, and achievement, thereby shedding light on EFL teaching and learning at the tertiary level in China.

This mixed-methods study explores the interconnected influence of growth mindset, mindfulness, and second language (L2) self-efficacy on language achievement in intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Quantitative data (n = 411) analyzed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews (n = 19) reveal significant positive associations between all three factors and L2 achievement. SEM further clarifies the direct and indirect pathways through which these psychological elements impact learning outcomes. Qualitative findings enrich this understanding by showcasing learners’ lived experiences and the transformative power of these variables in fostering a supportive learning environment. Collectively, the results emphasize the importance of integrating growth-oriented beliefs, nurturing self-efficacy, and employing mindfulness practices in language education to optimize learning. This research offers notable insights for second language acquisition and educational psychology, informing educators, policymakers, and practitioners about effective strategies for promoting successful language learning journeys.

BACKGROUND. Theories distinguish between student-initiated and teacher-initiated regulation of students' learning activities, or between strong, shared, or loose teacher control during the completion of learning tasks. Empirical validations for such distinctions are scarce, however. AIM. The present study aimed at (a) investigating students' perceptions of control behaviours exhibited by their English teachers; and (b) exploring the contribution of different types of teacher control behaviours to students' cognitive outcomes (English Achievement). SAMPLE. The sample comprised 732 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students studying in three major fields of high school (Mathematics, Natural Science, and Humanities). The participants (16-17 years of age) were selected from third-grade classes of 27 EFL teachers working in 25 high schools of 6 main different geographical regions in the Isfahan province, Iran. METHOD. To obtain a comprehensive picture of different control types exhibited by Iranian EFL teachers, the control subscales of the two existing questionnaires, i.e., the Questionnaire on Instructional Behaviours (QIB), adapted by Den Brok et al. (2004) and the Questionnaire on Lesson Activities (QLA) used by Den Brok (2001) were merged to form the Questionnaire of Teacher Control (QTC). The development of this Persian instrument involved several steps: translation and back translation by the researchers, one expert translator, and two EFL teachers; piloting; and a final administration of the questionnaire to the student sample. With respect to the second aim of the study, data regarding students' performances on the Standardized National English Achievement Tests were gathered from local educational offices and schools. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION. Statistical analyses supported acceptable reliability and validity of the instrument. A main factor structure with three types of teacher control (strong/high, shared/mid, and loose/low) was found to underlie students' perceptions. The results of multi-level analyses indicated that a relatively large amount of variance was explained by the control variables and student variables, and teacher control had a statistically significant effect on student outcomes. Students' English achievement was lowest when they felt control was their teachers' prerogative, higher when they themselves exerted their own control (low teacher control), and highest under shared (mid) control behaviours.

This study aimed at investigating the influence of confirmatory vs. corrective feedback on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' academic self-concept, attributions, second language (L2) speaking, class performance, and English achievement. To this end, two intact classes of female elementary EFL learners from a language learning institution in Isfahan, Iran were selected. They were asked to complete Myself-As-a-Learner Scale (MALS) and Attributions Scale (AS) to measure their self-concept and attributions prior to receiving any treatments. Then one of the classes received corrective feedback on their errors and the other one received confirmatory feedback on their correct use of English. At the end of the study, they were given the institute's achievement test, which was composed of 100 multiple choice items on listening, grammar, vocabulary, and reading. They were also asked to self-rate their L2 speaking as well as to complete MALS and AS again. Results revealed that teachers' corrective discourses have the potential to influence EFL learners' academic self-concept, attributions, and language attainment. Implications are discussed, and avenues for future research are outlined.

As an important factor promoting students’ learning behavior and achievement, teacher engagement has been largely neglected in the research literature on English as a foreign language (EFL) and applied linguistics. Moreover, the few studies have focused more on conventional classrooms rather than online learning contexts and failed to reveal how teacher engagement in the online foreign language classroom affected students’ achievement. The present study assessed 546 university students in China using self-report questionnaires to examine the relationship between teacher engagement and students’ achievement in an online EFL course over an 18-week semester, taking into account the possible mediating effects of autonomous motivation and positive academic emotions. The results showed that teacher engagement exerted a direct and positive impact on students’ English achievement. Students’ autonomous motivation and enjoyment mediated the association between teacher engagement and English achievement, but the mediating effects of relief were not significant. Additionally, teacher engagement affected students’ English achievement through the chain mediation of autonomous motivation and positive academic emotions (enjoyment and relief). Relief displayed a smaller effect on students’ English achievement than enjoyment did. These findings elucidate the impact of teacher engagement on students’ English achievement in the online environment and support the utility of self-determination theory and control-value theory in explaining foreign language learning. Directions for future research and implications for education are also presented.

A central point that has attracted researchers’ attention for several decades is related to establishing the causal relationship between student motivation and second language (L2) achievement. Based on self-determination theory, we investigated the effects of motivational interventions applied by English language teachers on subsequent L2 achievement through the meditating effect of students’ basic psychological need for autonomy, intrinsic motivation, and motivational intensity. To obtain precise results, we applied structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine whether the impact of the intervention on L2 achievement was direct and/or indirect. The results of SEM indicated that the effect is both direct and indirect, and the model variables explained approximately 87% of the variance in students’ achievement. Moreover, the indirect effects of the intervention on L2 achievement were significant, suggesting the key role that autonomy and intrinsic motivation played in understanding the positive impact of teacher motivational strategies on students’ language achievement. The experimental-driven findings represented by the SEM model in the present study denote a strong empirical evidence of the role of teacher motivational practice on student L2 achievement and important implications for the English as a foreign language (EFL) profession in this regard.

This paper aims to analyse the importance of intrinsic motivation factors as determinants of academic achievement in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The general aim of the present study has been to analyse the existing relationship between students’ academic motivation and performance. This paper explores the importance of motivational variables for school achievement. In particular, the present study suggests that students with a higher intrinsic motivation to learn English will achieve better grades in this subject. Participants were 542 students (male and female) of Secondary Education. Results show that there is a correlation between academic goals and academic results; in particular an association exists between learning goals (intrinsic motivation) and a high academic achievement. With regards to the importance of intrinsic motivational factors, this study concludes that these factors are determinants of academic achievement in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). Therefore, results are useful in view of improving the process of teaching/learning EFL. The relevant conclusion reached here point to the academic goals as being indicator of and decisive factor for academic achievement. Key words: academic achievement, academic goals, academic motivation, English as a foreign language.

How does basic psychological needs satisfaction contribute to EFL learners’ achievement and positive emotions? The mediating role of L2 self-concept

This study aims to investigate how teachers' positive feedback influences learners' positive psychology in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction and to examine how positive psychology enhances learning outcomes through the neural efficiency hypothesis. The study employed three neuroscientific and behavioral experiments to address these questions. Study 1, with 78 college-level EFL learners, examined the effect of teachers' positive feedback on learners' positive psychology and found a significant positive impact. Study 2, conducted with 102 EFL learners, tested the neural efficiency hypothesis and revealed that higher positive psychology improved neural efficiency, with positive feedback moderating this effect. Study 3, involving 54 EFL learners, explored the relationship between neural efficiency and learning outcomes, confirming that enhanced neural efficiency leads to better learning performance. Beyond education, the results underscore the broader relevance of positive psychology and neural efficiency in other domains, such as workplace performance, skill acquisition, and personal development, where maintaining cognitive efficiency and well-being is crucial. These findings highlight the importance of positive feedback in fostering positive psychology, improving neural efficiency, and enhancing learning outcomes. The study offers theoretical contributions and practical recommendations for EFL educators to leverage positive feedback and promote effective learning.

Despite the great potential technologies bring to TBLT, few studies have examined the effects of technology-enhanced TBLT curriculum on students’ language development, especially among young learners. This paper addresses this need by reporting the impact of a technology-enhanced TBLT curriculum on Chinese elementary students’ English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning using a Non-equivalent Groups Design. A total of 471 fourth grade students from 4 low-SES schools outside Beijing participated in the study. Students’ growth in their English achievement was assessed using pre and post-tests before and after the intervention. A descriptive analysis was first conducted after completion of data collection, and then a t-test was conducted to determine the effect of the intervention. Results indicate that students who received the intervention progressed much more quickly in overall language proficiency than those who did not receive the treatment. The study points to the great potential of implementing comprehensive technology-enhanced TBLT at the curricular level.

The rise of positive psychology (PP) has inspired educators in different fields to move toward positivity and emotionality. An emerging venue for PP has been second/foreign language (L2) education given its emotional essence. While many studies are exploring various aspects of PP in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts, they are mostly correlational. Nevertheless, teachers' perceptions and experiences of PP use in EFL classes have remained under-explored. To fill this gap, this study aimed to examine Chinese EFL teachers' perceptions about the use, benefits, setbacks, and requirements of applying PP in L2 education. To this end, a sample of 21 Chinese EFL teachers with various educational and pedagogical profiles attended a semi-structured interview. The findings indicated that Chinese EFL teachers perceived various benefits for PP use including its capacity to generate positive emotions, stop and reduce negative emotions, improve professional expertise and feelings, establish positive, friendly, and interactive learning environments, and strengthen one's character. Concerning challenges, it was found that PP application had been tough in China because of its logistic demands, teacher-related and learner-related factors (e.g., personality, needs, and openness to diversity/change), polices and rules, and the need for training. Moreover, the findings showed that PP use requires positive classroom climates, attitudes, and relationships, along with special training, emotional literacy, individualized instruction, school support and resources, and a humanistic teaching style. The study discusses the findings and implications for EFL teachers and educators, who can realize the benefits, challenges, and requirements of PP use in L2 classes.

By shifting the focus of studies in applied linguistics from negative psychology to positive psychology, psychological capital (PsyCap) consisting of self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience can be an influential factor in the language classrooms. Prior studies have emphasized the role that PsyCap plays in management, though little attention has been given to it in education. Therefore, to address this gap, this research intends to assess the role of PsyCap in learners’ second/foreign (L2) willingness to communicate (WTC), L2 motivational self system, and L2 achievement. To achieve this goal, 317 Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) learners took part in the present study and completed the measures of PsyCap, L2 WTC, and L2 motivational self system. The findings of structural equation modeling demonstrated that the learners’ PsyCap was a positive significant predictor of L2 WTC, L2 motivational self system, and L2 achievement. These findings confirm the influential role of PsyCap in language education. Based on the findings, some recommendations were presented on how to apply PsyCap to the realm of language education.

Background: Second language (L2) learning is complex, multifaceted, and greatly influenced by various factors, of which individual factors like anxiety and motivation are important ones. Though anxiety and motivation have been shown to be strongly correlated with each other and interact with other variables to collaboratively affect L2 learning, mixed findings have been revealed, demonstrating the complexity of the interrelationship between L2 anxiety and motivation and their interactive effects on L2 learning. Purpose: Guided by the self-determination theory, this study aimed to explore the levels of and the relationship between English classroom anxiety and motivation as well as their predictive effects on Chinese undergraduate EFL (English as a foreign language) learners’ English achievement. Method: The participants were 571 Chinese university students who answered an 8-item English Classroom Anxiety Scale, a 35-item English Learning Motivation Scale, and a 5-item Demographic Information Questionnaire. They also reported their scores in tests that they had recently taken and self-rated their overall English proficiency as indicators of their English achievement. Results: The study revealed the following major findings: (a) the participants had a small to moderate level of English classroom anxiety, and a medium level of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, personal goals and expectancy/control in English learning, (b) English classroom anxiety was significantly negatively correlated with all motivation scales, (c) English classroom anxiety was not only significantly negatively related to but negatively predicted the students’ English achievement, and (d) significantly positive correlations existed between English learning motivation and English achievement. Of different motivation dimensions, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation positively predicted the latter. Conclusion: The findings of this study further demonstrate the importance of anxiety and motivation in L2 learning and the need to explore anxiety-reduction strategies, increase students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and strengthen their expectancy in L2 teaching and learning, thus contributing to the understanding of foreign language anxiety and L2 motivation and enriching the current literature on the two issues.

Influences of motivation and grit on students’ self-regulated learning and English learning achievement: A comparison between male and female students

This study explored the relationship between cognitive styles and achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL). To this end, the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, consisting of draw a woman test (DAWT) and draw a man test (DAMT), was administered to 658 grade two, three and four students who had registered in Imam Reza primary schools in Mashhad, Iran. The DAWT and DAMT were marked by two raters and averaged to have a more comprehensive measure of the students’ conceptualization of human figure called draw a person test (DAPT). The mean score on the DAPT was utilized to assign the participants to field-dependent and field-independent groups. The participants’ scores on the oral and written examinations held in the middle and end of school year were also obtained from their schools and averaged to get a total test score as an indicator of EFL achievement. The correlational analysis of the data established a significant relationship between cognitive styles and oral and total EFL achievement. Neither the field-dependent nor field-independent genus of cognitive styles related to the achievement. The independent samples ttest, however, showed that the field-independent primary school students’ EFL achievement was significantly higher than their FD counterparts. The results are discussed and suggestions are made for future research.