An Engineer’s Odyssey: Resurrecting a 1914 Detroit Electric: The forgotten heyday of the electric car.

Socio-demographic characteristics, psychological factors and knowledge related to electric car use: A comparison between electric and conventional car drivers

The Aerospace Corporation, in support of the Department of Energy (DOE) Electric Vehicle Project, has undertaken two activities related to defining the possible characteristics of the mid-1980s electric passenger car. The first activity, an investigation of the potential performance and cost characteristics through computer modeling, was supported by the Argonne National Laboratory, General Research Corporation, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and NASA/Lewis Research Center. That investigation was restricted to a 4-passenger, all-electric car similar to the DOE Electric Test Vehicle-One (ETV-1) developed by the General Electric Company and the Chrysler Corporation. The study effort was completed in February 1981. The second effort currently underway is an electric vehicle (EV) applications research study that is part of a government/industry collaborative effort. Based on the computer modeling results, the state of technology for the mid-1980s, 4-passenger electric car could achieve an urban driving range of 80 to 100 miles with acceleration competitive with a comparable-size, diesel-powered car. Top speeds and ramp accelerations compatible with highway driving also appear achievable. These conclusions assume that the batteries being developed through DOE funding--improved lead-acid, zinc/nickel oxide, iron/nickel oxide, and zinc/chloride--will achieve their currently established performance goals in mass production. The purchase price of a 4-passenger electric car with a 100-mile range is projected to be at least 50 percent higher than that of a comparable internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle. However, life-cycle costs for a 4-passenger, 100-mile-range car are predicted to range from slightly lower to moderately higher than those of a comparable ICE vehicle depending on petroleum costs and the cost and cycle life of the batteries. The eventual cost and performance of the mid-1980s electric car will be influenced greatly by the trade-offs associated with battery weight and cost versus vehicle payload and range requirements. In general, cost and performance results tend to indicate the desirability of pursuing the development of a 2-passenger car and/or a less than 100-mile-range car if the market for these types of vehicles appears sufficiently attractive. For the second effort, The Aerospace Corporation will subcontract an electric vehicle applications research study to identify the vehicle attributes most likely to influence consumer purchasing decisions. The Statement of Work for this study was prepared by a Steering Committee composed of representatives of the major domestic automobile manufacturers, the EV supply industry, the electric utility industry, and other interested organizations. As part of this effort, it was necessary to define the characteristics of the mid-1980s electric car and its expected competition in that time frame. Vehicle characteristics were selected based on a consensus of the Steering Committee members. The projected characteristics of the baseline electric car defined by the Steering Committee agree quite closely with those predicted in the modeling work mentioned earlier. For the conduct of the study, it has been predicted that the baseline electric car will achieve a 75-mile range, accelerate somewhat more slowly than a comparable ICE vehicle, and perform satisfactorily on highways. The monthly ownership and operation cost (at current gasoline prices) and purchase price are estimated to be 30 and 50 percent higher, respectively. Assuming a more optimistic battery purchase price and replacement rate, the vehicle monthly cost is predicted to be equal to that of a comparable-size ICE vehicle. Competitive vehicles in the mid-1980s are assumed to be powered by gasoline, diesel, or an alternative fuel such as methanol. The fuel economy of these vehicles in urban driving is estimated to be 40 to 50 mpg, and the acceleration is projected to be similar to or somewhat slower than today's ICE vehicle. It is anticipated that the results of the applications study will help focus future DOE and industry research and development efforts on those areas that will most satisfy consumer needs.

Assuming the availability of a high energy and power density battery of 100 Wh/lb and 100 W/lb by the 1980's, the energy consumption and efficiency of electric and heat engine cars are compared on an equal basis. This is achieved by considering a reference electric car of 3150-lb weight similar in body construction, aerodynamics, and rolling resistance to a conventional heat engine car of equal weight, and comparing the performance of the two cars over the same driving modes. The reference electric car is then used as a baseline to evaluate the possible improvements in future electric cars. The energy consumption for an optimized 2000-lb electric car of driving range, comfort, and performance comparable to a conventional car is estimated. Assuming a gradual growth in electric car population leading to their widespread use by the 1990's, the impact on electric power generation and distribution systems is estimated. Though the analysis is based on a high energy and power density battery the results may be extrapolated to electric cars using lower performance batteries. It is noted that batteries with lower energy density can provide sufficient driving range to fulfill a significant portion of our transportation needs and their continued development and improvement will accelerate the achievement of the high energy- density goal [1].

This work includes calculations of the cumulative CO2 emissions of two comparable cars—the VW Golf VII—one with a combustion engine and the other with an electric motor. Calculation of CO2 emissions was performed, taking into account the stages of production, utilization and use of the above-mentioned vehicles. For the use phase, it was assumed that the total mileage of the car will be 150,000 km over 10 years. For the electric vehicle, calculations were made assuming five different sources of electricity (from coal only, from natural gas only, from PV and wind turbines, an average mix of European power sources and an average mix of Polish power sources; W1–W5 designations, respectively). For individual sources of electricity, cumulative CO2 emissions were taken into account, that is, resulting both from the production of electricity and the use of the resources (for example, technical service per 1 kWh of electricity produced). The obtained results of the analysis show that for the adopted assumptions regarding operation, for variants W2–W5, the use of an electric car results in lower cumulative CO2 emission than a the use of a combustion car. For a combustion car, the value was 37,000 kg-CO2, and for an electric car, depending on the variant, the value was 43, 31, 16, 23 and 34 thousand kg-CO2 for variants W1 to W5, respectively. Based on the emissions results obtained for individual stages of the use of selected vehicles, a comparative analysis of cumulative CO2 emissions was performed. The purpose of this analysis was to determine whether the replacement of an existing combustion car (that has already been manufactured; therefore, this part of the analysis does not include CO2 emissions in the production stage) with a new electric car, which has to be manufactured, therefore associated with additional CO2 emissions, would reduce cumulative CO2 emissions. Considering three adopted average annual car mileages (3000, 7500 and 15,000 km) and the previously described power options (W1–W5), we sought an answer as to whether the use of a new electric car would be burdened with lower cumulative CO2 emissions. In this case we assumed an analysis time of 15 years. For the worst variant from the point of view of CO2 emissions (W1, electricity from coal power sources only), further use of a combustion car is associated with lower cumulative CO2 emissions than the purchase of a new electric car over the entire analyzed period of 15 years. In turn, for the most advantageous variant (W3, electricity from PV or wind power sources) with an annual mileage of 3000 km, the purchase of a new electric car results in higher cumulative CO2 emissions throughout the analyzed period, whereas for an annual milage of 7500 or 15,000 km, replacing the car with an electric car “pays back” in terms of cumulative CO2 emissions after 8.5 or 4 years, respectively.

Assuming the availability of a high energy and power density battery of 100 Wh/lb and 100 W/lb by the 1980' s, the energy consumption and efficiency of electric and heat engine cars are compared on an equal basis. This is achieved by considering a reference electric car of 3150-lb weight similar in body construction, aerodynamics, and rolling resistance to a conventional heat engine car of equal weight, and comparing the performance of the two cars over the same driving modes. The reference electric car is then used as a baseline to evaluate the possible improvements in future electric cars. The energy consumption for an optimized 2000-lb electric car of driving range, comfort, and performance comparable to a conventional car is estimated. Assuming a gradual growth in electric car population leading to their widespread use by the 1990's, the impact on electric power generation and distribution systems is estimated. Though the analysis is based on a high energy and power density battery the results may be extrapolated to electric cars using lower performance batteries. It is noted that batteries with lower energy density can provide sufficient driving range to fulfill a significant portion of our transportation needs and their continued development and improvement will accelerate the achievement of the high energy-density goal [1].

Transportation is the most important need in the mobility of fulfilling people's needs. The increasing number of transportation has an impact on environmental degradation, especially air pollution. Based on the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK), transportation contributes more than 20% of the total Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions in Indonesia. This is caused by conventional transportation or vehicles that use oil fuel (BBM). In addition to polluting the air, the use of conventional vehicles also triggers respiratory diseases that will worsen the quality of human life. Electric cars are one solution to overcome this problem because electric cars do not emit carbon emissions. Electric cars continue to be developed through industrial technology research including fast charging circuit architecture topology, power flow, and protection. Fast charging or fast charging of electric car batteries is needed to increase comfort, efficiency, and speed up time. Electric cars that have been designed by the Electrical Technology of the Indorama Engineering Polytechnic require a compatible fast charging circuit. The study aims to analyze the effect of Integrated Circuit (IC) 7805 and IC 7812 on fast charging of electric battery cars. The results of the study showed that the best performance criteria were obtained in the fast charging circuit using the IC 7805. A more stable voltage profile compared to circuits without IC, with an average of 12V. The current flowing is also high, which is 4 amperes, compared to other circuits, so that the charging time is faster, which is 8.75 hours compared to the circuit without IC, which takes 9.64 hours to charge the battery. Therefore, the addition of IC 7805 is proven to be compatible in the fast charging circuit of electric car batteries.

Objective: to assess the competitiveness of a Russian electric car and an ICE car, taking into account the external costs associated with emissions of the main greenhouse gas – CO2.Methods: the article uses comparative and quantitative methods, the method of analysis and synthesis, the method of estimating the total cost of ownership (TCO), justifies the use of the avoidance cost approach as an optimal approach to assessing the external costs associated with climate change.Results: modern efficient economic development is inextricably linked with the organization of a low-carbon transport system. The green transition to electric vehicles makes it possible to solve the problem of externalities associated with the increased public costs due to greenhouse gas emissions. The paper examines the prospects for the transition to electric cars from the viewpoint of reducing the external costs of cars. The article assesses the current state and key barriers to the development of electric transport production. A comparative assessment of the competitiveness of Russian electric vehicles and ICE cars is given, taking into account the external costs associated with carbon emissions. The comparison was carried out based on an estimate of the total cost of ownership, taking into account the external costs associated with greenhouse gas emissions. As a result of the comparative analysis, it was determined that the total cost of five-year ownership of the Evolute i-Pro car, taking into account support measures, is even lower than that of the Lada Vesta Sport ICE sedan, which is close to it in terms of technical characteristics, by 342.7 thousand rubles. Without subsidies, Evolute i-Pro does not yet achieve parity in the cost of ownership with an ICE car, despite low operating costs, free parking and exemption from paying transport tax. Based on the conducted research, conclusions are made about the measures necessary to increase the gap between the total costs of ownership in ICE cars and electric cars to increase the competitiveness of the latter.Scientific novelty: the author’s approach was used to compare the competitiveness of the new Russian electric car Evolute i-Pro and Lada Vesta Sport ICE car, which, in addition to support measures, includes external costs associated with carbon emissions.Practical significance: the results obtained may be useful to developers of state support measures in assessing the effectiveness of the current subsidy mechanism and making decisions on further stimulating the development of the electric cars market in Russia. The results of the study will also be especially useful to residents of Moscow who are thinking of buying a Russian electric car.

The goal of this study is to add to the understanding of the overall emissions caused by cars using both gasoline and existing alternative fuels. We will include the emission from the vehicle itself and also from upstream sources, primarily the source of the energy used to actually move the vehicle. The fact that electric motors have better efficiencies than internal combustion engines and the fact that power plants usually have higher thermal efficiencies than an engine seems to suggest that that the electric vehicle will be the more efficient in terms of emissions per vehicle kilometer. The complexities of vehicle propulsion become evident when one compares all the details of the available options, such as electric vehicles have to transport extra weight in batteries to increase performance. In this work we evaluate the emissions from electric and gasoline vehicles that are on the road. The data shows under most conditions the current vehicles have lower emissions than gasoline cars in terms of kilograms of carbon dioxide per kilometer. The different propulsion systems are then evaluated in how they would perform in moving a standardized vehicle including the system itself through a standardized cycle, to assess whether differences in emissions are the result of the system itself or other design differences. This study found that while in general the electric vehicle is better, the source of the electricity is a crucial factor in the determination. It is found that the cars currently being produced produce less green house gases than the gasoline cars on the average. In fact two of the four cars performed better even at the highest possible emission levels. While this casts a positive light on the electric car, it is a simplistic way of looking at the data. The calculations also show that the performance levels of the gasoline cars are much higher than the electric cars; this could be the main reason for the lower emissions of electric cars. The second part of this study is focused on quantifying the differences in emissions by studying that from a standardized car in all 50 states and D.C. These differences arise from the different levels of emissions owing to the variety of combinations of methods used and the methods themselves in the generation of electricity within the 51 regions. An analysis is done on of the most efficient car that could be made with commercially available products. The results show the dependence of actual emission on the energy source. Although the national, California, Florida and lowest averages all beat the performance of the gasoline vehicle, the gasoline car won if the electric car was operated in D.C. using electricity generated in the D.C. Results for the electric car in all 51 regions and for the gasoline car have been obtained. There is an implication that lower specific power would result in more states where electric vehicles will emit more green house gases. Assuming that new cars do use the higher specific power batteries, electric vehicles will produce less green house gases than gasoline vehicles at a national level.

The chapter presents spatial distribution of hybrid and electric cars in Poland and socio-demographic profiles, travel behaviour and preferences of their potential buyers. These type of cars are registered almost exclusively in large cities (including as many as one-third in the Warsaw agglomeration, the capital of Poland) and mostly by companies (over 60% of registrations). The share of hybrid and electric cars in the total car park in Poland has so far been marginal (around 0,5%), but the recent statistical data and growing interest from the industry and media allows to predict its slow, systematic uptake in the following years. Potential buyers of hybrid and electric cars in Poland (among individual users) are people living in a large city or its suburbs, aged 40–59, with a university degree and stable employment. The future recipients of electric and hybrid cars drive younger cars and more often have second car in their household. These drivers, among other characteristics, declare higher life satisfaction, better financial situation as well as higher ecological awareness when making car choices.

Traffic noise is one of the largest contributors to environmental noise. Electrical vehicles have since the introduction been profiled as being quieter than the traditional car with internal combustion engine. Electrical passenger cars are becoming a larger part of the traffic fleet today than before. Since it has been expected that the propulsion noise is significantly lower for electrical passenger cars. This means one could argue that the traffic noise should be expected to decrease in urban traffic where the propulsion noise from cars dominates. Measurements have been conducted in Oslo, Norway, on electrical passenger cars and passenger cars with internal combustion engines at roads with speed limit from 15 km/h up to 60 km/h. The sound exposure level was compared between the different vehicle types. In addition, the sound power level was calculated and compared with the CNOSSOS-EU method. Measurements show that electrical passenger cars were only marginally quieter than the cars with internal combustion engines.

Land transport has contributed to air pollution that occurs. This forced the car manufacturers to improve the quality of their products in order to pass the exhaust emissions standards. In addition to exhaust emissions, the limited source of vehicle fuel energy is the reason some researchers develop electric cars. This article conveys the results of research on prototyping an electric city car for two passengers with wheel hub motor type configuration as our research pilot project related to electric cars. The data acquisition aids made are equipped with a LabVIEW-based human-machine interface that makes it easier for researchers to monitor the consumption of electric cars in real-time. Based on the design process, manufacture, until testing, the value of drag coefficient is 0.47; testing for curb-weight is 510 kg; maximum speed is 75.3 km/hour; the maximum power is 3.03 kW at 602 rpm wheel speed; and the maximum torque is 50.8 Nm at a wheel speed of 516 rpm. For the state of charge, this prototype of an electric city car is capable of traveling up to 42.4 km from 100% to 20% SOC.

This paper presents an analysis concerning the effectiveness of electric traction in comparison with conventional cars. The Life Cycle Assessment method is used. It estimates the energy spent for the extraction of the raw materials/sources, manufacturing and transportation of the components and the vehicle, motion, maintenance and repair during exploitation period and the recycling process. The impact of the production technology of the electric energy, needed for charging the battery, is taken into account. The energy consumption and CO2 emissions for the life cycle of electric and conventional cars are presented on graphs. Examples for Bulgaria and EU countries are given. The exploitation conditions in which the electric car is more effective regarding CO2 equivalent emissions are shown. The main influence on the effectiveness of electric cars has the structure of the energy mix of the country where the electric car is produced and is used in exploitation.

A choice experiment on preferences for electric and hybrid cars in Istanbul

South Korea has drawn up plans to reduce greenhouse gases by 29.7 million tons by supplying 4.5 million electric and hydrogen cars by 2030 to implement the “2050 carbon neutrality” goal. This article gathers data on public preferences for electric cars (ECs) over hydrogen cars (HCs) in the commercial vehicle transportation sector through a survey of 1000 people. Moreover, the strength of the preference was evaluated on a five-point scale. Of all respondents, 60.0 percent preferred ECs and 21.0 percent HCs, the former being 2.86 times greater than the latter. On the other hand, the strength of the preference for HCs was 1.42 times greater than that for ECs. Factors influencing the preference for ECs over HCs were also explored through adopting the ordered probit model, which is useful in examining ordinal preference rather than cardinal preference. The analyzed factors, which are related to respondents’ characteristics, experiences, and perceptions, can be usefully employed for developing strategies of promoting carbon neutrality in the commercial vehicle transportation sector and preparing policies to improve public acceptance thereof.

The article discusses the analysis of the possible development of hazards associated with the operation of vehicles equipped with an electric drive using the example of passenger cars. The authors review the problem of the safety of people and property resulting from the occurrence of a fire in an electric passenger car, in the context of fires that have occurred in recent years. Particular attention was paid to the analysis of the state of knowledge concerning the characteristics of the fire progression in an electric car, its heat release rate curve [HRR], total heat release [THR], heat of combustion and factors affecting the fire progression. In this paper, an attempt was made to compare the fire characteristics of an electric car and a passenger car equipped with an internal combustion engine together with an estimation, using CFD simulations, of the impact on the safety of people and property in closed structures such as underground garages or road tunnels. The need for further development of research on electric cars equipped with large lithium-ion batteries in the context of their fire safety is indicated. The authors pay attention to the insufficient amount of data available to understand the fire characteristics of modern electric cars, which would enable the appropriate design of fire safety systems in building structures.