An assessment of sustainable maize production under different management and climate scenarios for smallholder agro-ecosystems in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

A single and long-term use of inorganic fertilizers harms soil quality. Therefore, it is highly recommended that inorganic fertilizers be combined with other fertilizers. This study explores the synergistic effect of inorganic, organic, and biofertilizers on maize rhizosphere properties and production. Biochar (BC) and compost (OF) were applied as organic sources, a consortium of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) was applied as phosphate biofertilizers, while urea and NPK-PONSKA fertilizers (IF) were used as inorganic fertilizers. A greenhouse experiment was designed as a completely randomized arrangement involving six treatments in triplicate, namely control (only IF), a combination of IF+BC, IF+PSB, IF+BC+PSB, IF+PSB+OF, and IF+BC+OF+PSB. The best changes in soil microbial and chemical properties, maize root dry weight, and production were observed in the IF+BC+OF+PSB combination, followed by IF+OF+PSB, IF+BC+PSB and (IF+BC; IF+PSB) and control treatment, respectively. A fertilizer combination involving the addition of BC (IF+BC, IF+BC+PSB, IF+BC+OF +PSB) significantly increased soil organic C content and soil pH compared to without biochar (IF+PSB and IF+OF+PSB). A higher root dry weight also results in higher maize production. Maize production Increased in the 4, 3, and 2 combinations compared to production in the control by 43.11%, 31.32-36.55%, and 18.57%-21.34%, respectively. In conclusion, the synergy of biochar, compost, and PSB, when integrated with fertilizer, can improve soil quality and the sustainability of maize production. This study will be useful in developing sustainable nutrient management programs to increase crop productivity with high efficiency in using inorganic fertilizers.

This paper focuses on smallholder maize production in Malawi by investigating the link between productivity and soil fertility management. Many studies conducted in Malawi indicate declining levels of maize productivity thereby posing food security concerns, since maize is the staple crop for most areas of the country. This analysis focuses on the factors influencing productivity of maize among smallholder farmers, especially given the fears that unfavorable output and input market conditions throughout the 1990s may have compelled smallholder farmers into unsustainable agricultural intensification. Farm-household survey data is thus used to compare the productivity of smallholder maize production under integrated soil fertility (ISFM) and chemical-based soil fertility management. A normalized translog yield response model is estimated by imposing monotonicity and curvature correctness at the sample mean. The results indicate higher maize yield responses for integrated soil fertility management options, after controlling for the intensity of fertilizer application, labour intensity, seed rate, land husbandry practices and policy factors such as market access, extension and credit access. The estimated model is highly consistent with theoretical regularity conditions. Thus, the findings indicate that the use of ISFM increases maize productivity in comparison to the use of inorganic fertilizers. Since most farmers in the maize-based farming systems are crowded out of the agricultural input market and can hardly afford optimal quantities of inorganic fertilizer, enhancement of ISFM provides scope for enhancing maize productivity and food security especially where inorganic fertilizer is highly unaffordable and risky to use. Thus there is need for policy interventions to promote smallholder uptake of ISFM options. Finally areas of policy support in crop output and input market development, credit access and extension service provision are identified to enhance ISFM uptake in smallholder maize-based farming systems.

Several agricultural technologies have been promoted to intensify smallholder farming systems in Ghana, but there is limited literature on sustainability assessment of these technologies. A 2‐year (2017–2018) on‐farm study was conducted to evaluate the sustainability of using cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] living mulch (CPLM) technology to intensify smallholder maize (Zea mays L.) production in northern Ghana. Four treatments (control, CPLM planted with maize on the same day, CPLM planted 1 week after maize, and CPLM planted 2 weeks after maize) were laid in RCBD with four replications per treatment. We used Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF) to assess the sustainability of the above treatments based on five domains (productivity, economic, environment, human, and social). We conducted the assessment in the following three steps: (1) measured selected indicators from the five SIAF domains, which were useful to answering research question; (2) converted measured values of the indicators into scores using a scale of 0–1; and (3) calculated sustainability index using geometric rules considering each SIAF domain as an edge of a pentagon. The sustainability indices for the CPLM increased by 143%–300% compared with the control treatment. The sustainability indices for the CPLM were >1, indicating better sustainability relative to the control treatment, which recorded sustainability index of <1. This suggests that smallholder farmers in northern Ghana and similar agroecologies can intercrop cowpea 1–2 weeks after planting maize as living mulch for better sustainability of their maize production and well‐being through its effect on yield, income, food security, nutrition, and gender equity.

Soil organic matter depletion leads to soil structural degradation in cultivated ecosystems. Organic soil amendment reduces inorganic fertilizer dependency, maintains soil properties, and enhances crop production. Organic soil amendments are crucial for sustainable agriculture, providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to soil and plants. They help address soil organic carbon depletion and environmental issues, as inorganic fertilization hinders sustainable agriculture by affecting soil fertility and crop productivity. A two-year field experiment at the Agriculture Research Farm, University of Agriculture Peshawar-Pakistan, examined the effects of combining organic and inorganic amendments on maize variety Azam and hybrid CS 220, aiming to compensate for soil organic carbon loss. Treatments were Control, Half (H) NPK, Full NPK, Legume Residues (LR) @ 10 tons ha-1, Humic Acid (HA) @ 5 kg ha-1, Biochar (BC) @ 10 tons ha-1, LR + HNPK, HA + HNPK, BC + HNPK, HLR +HHA+ HNPK, HLR + HBC + HNPK and HBC + HHA + HNPK. The study used a two-factorial randomized complete block design with three replications to study maize two-year data. Results showed significant cob lengths in HLR + HBC + HNPK treatment, while maximum results in plant population, 1000 grain weight, and biological yield were in HBC + HHA + HNPK treatment. The highest soil organic matter was recorded in plots with only BC application at 10 tons ha-1, with the highest soil K recorded in BC + HNPK treatment. The hybrid CS 220 maize variety showed superior yield and component performance compared to the Azam variety, while the Azam variety yielded the best results in soil parameters. The maize production improved significantly in the second year compared to the first year. The study suggests that combining organic and half-inorganic fertilizers improves soil fertility, making it a viable strategy for crop yield regulation and sustainable maize production. This can be achieved using efficient organic soil amendments alone or in combination with commercially available inorganic fertilizers.

Precision nitrogen (N) management (PNM) strategies are urgently needed for the sustainability of rain-fed maize (Zea mays L.) production in Northeast China. The objective of this study was to develop an active canopy sensor (ACS)-based PNM strategy for rain-fed maize through improving in-season prediction of yield potential (YP0), response index to side-dress N based on harvested yield (RIHarvest), and side-dress N agronomic efficiency (AENS). Field experiments involving six N rate treatments and three planting densities were conducted in three growing seasons (2015–2017) in two different soil types. A hand-held GreenSeeker sensor was used at V8-9 growth stage to collect normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and ratio vegetation index (RVI). The results indicated that NDVI or RVI combined with relative plant height (NDVI*RH or RVI*RH) were more strongly related to YP0 (R2 = 0.44–0.78) than only using NDVI or RVI (R2 = 0.26–0.68). The improved N fertilizer optimization algorithm (INFOA) using in-season predicted AENS optimized N rates better than the N fertilizer optimization algorithm (NFOA) using average constant AENS. The INFOA-based PNM strategies could increase marginal returns by 212 $ ha−1 and 70 $ ha−1, reduce N surplus by 65% and 62%, and improve N use efficiency (NUE) by 4%–40% and 11%–65% compared with farmer’s typical N management in the black and aeolian sandy soils, respectively. It is concluded that the ACS-based PNM strategies have the potential to significantly improve profitability and sustainability of maize production in Northeast China. More studies are needed to further improve N management strategies using more advanced sensing technologies and incorporating weather and soil information.

In sustainable maize production it is very important to determine precisely the agroecological conditions (weather, soil) and to choose the genotype to them and to harmonize the level of agrotechnical elements with ecological and biological circumstances. According to our long-term experimental results the key-elements of sustainable maize production are crop rotation, fertilization, irrigation, plant density and weed-control. The yields of maize can be hold stable on the yield level of 11–12 t ha−1 and the agronomy efficiency can be ensured by the optimum management of the above mentioned agronomic key elements on Chernozem soil.

This article analyses the technical efficiency of maize production in Zimbabwe’s smallholder farming communities following the fast-track land reform of the year 2000 with a view of highlighting key entry points for policy. Using a randomly selected sample of 522 smallholder maize producers, a stochastic frontier production model was applied, using a linearised Cobb–Douglas production function to determine the production elasticity coefficients of inputs, technical efficiency and the determinants of efficiency. The study finds that maize output responds positively to increases in inorganic fertilisers, seed quantity, the use of labour and the area planted. The technical efficiency analysis suggests that about 90% of farmers in the sample are between 60 and 75% efficient, with an average efficiency in the sample of 65%. The significant determinants of technical efficiency were the gender of the household head, household size, frequency of extension visits, farm size and the farming region. The resu...

Maize is the most important crop grown in South Africa, but yields can be severely reduced by extreme high summer average temperatures and low precipitation, potentially adversely affecting both domestic consumption and regional food security exports. To help understand and manage climate risks to food security in Southern Africa it is essential to quantify the present-day likelihood and magnitude of climate extremes in South Africa’s maize-growing region and explore the potential for unprecedented climate conditions which would likely result in record low maize yields. We analyse a large ensemble of initialised climate model simulations, which provides almost 100 times as many plausible present-day summers as the equivalent observational dataset. We quantify the risk of unprecedented climate extremes affecting maize production in South Africa and examine the role of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. We find that the South African maize region is at risk of experiencing record-breaking hot, cold, dry or wet events under current climatic conditions. We find that the annual chance of unprecedented high temperatures in South Africa is approximately 4%, increasing to 62% during very strong El Niño years. We also find that the chance of exceeding the present day seasonal high temperature record has increased across the 1979–2018 period, being five times more likely now than it was in 1980. These extreme events could result in a record-breaking number of days above the optimum, or even the maximum, temperature for maize production, and lead to more severe floods or droughts. Under climate change scenarios, the magnitude and frequency of climate extremes is projected to increase meaning that the unprecedented extremes studied here could become commonplace in the future. This suggests that significant investment is needed to develop adaptations that manage the climate-related risks to food systems now and build resilience to the projected impacts of climate change.

Most of smallholders in Zimbabwe under the leasehold tenure system are beneficiaries of the Fast-Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) of 2000. It is generally argued that the leasehold tenure system has unprecedented impact on agricultural production as farmers fail to secure bank loans using leased land as collateral security. This article is premised on a study whose main objective was to determine the impact of leasehold land tenure system on productivity sby mallholder maize farmers. The study was carried out in Ward 1 of Chikomba District in Mashonaland East Province. Descriptive research design and primary data gathered from the randomly selected 87 farmers out of the 673 farmers, using a structured questionnaire, were used for this study. The data gathered was comprehensively analysed using both correlation analysis and regression analysis to achieve the study objectives. The results revealed that the leasehold tenure system limits farmers‟ access to credit, meaning, therefore, that the leasehold tenure has a negative impact on input investment, maize production and profitability by the smallholder farmers in Chikomba District. The study concludes that the leasehold tenure system has a negative impact on input investment, production of smallholder maize farmers as it discouraged farmers‟ access to credit, a key factor that determines farmers‟ input investment and production. The study recommends the Government of Zimbabwe to change the tenure system on smallholder farmers to a more favourable system to improve smallholder farmer input investment, productivity and profitability.

Most of smallholders in Zimbabwe under the leasehold tenure system are beneficiaries of the Fast-Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) of 2000. It is generally argued that the leasehold tenure system has unprecedented impact on agricultural production as farmers fail to secure bank loans using leased land as collateral security. This article is premised on a study whose main objective was to determine the impact of leasehold land tenure system on productivity sby mallholder maize farmers. The study was carried out in Ward 1 of Chikomba District in Mashonaland East Province. Descriptive research design and primary data gathered from the randomly selected 87 farmers out of the 673 farmers, using a structured questionnaire, were used for this study. The data gathered was comprehensively analysed using both correlation analysis and regression analysis to achieve the study objectives. The results revealed that the leasehold tenure system limits farmers‟ access to credit, meaning, therefore, that the leasehold tenure has a negative impact on input investment, maize production and profitability by the smallholder farmers in Chikomba District. The study concludes that the leasehold tenure system has a negative impact on input investment, production of smallholder maize farmers as it discouraged farmers‟ access to credit, a key factor that determines farmers‟ input investment and production. The study recommends the Government of Zimbabwe to change the tenure system on smallholder farmers to a more favourable system to improve smallholder farmer input investment, productivity and profitability.

Climate change impacts on irrigated maize in Mediterranean climates: Evaluation of double cropping as an emerging adaptation alternative

Background: Social grants have become an increasingly popular means of improving the welfare of poor households in South Africa and beyond. While the goals of these transfers are to alleviate current poverty as well as to improve human capital capacity, they also have unintended effects, positive or negative, on beneficiary households. A question that has not been adequately addressed in the literature is the role that social grants play in the efforts to commercialise smallholder farming.Aim: The aim of this study was to examine the impact of social grant dependency on the incentives of smallholder maize producers to participate in the market.Setting: The study was done in the rural areas of four districts (Harry Gwala, Umzinyathi, Umkhanyakude and Uthukela) in the KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.Methods: The study adopted a quantitative research design. A total of 984 households were randomly selected from the four districts, of which 774 had planted maize in the previous season. The analysis was done on the 774 farmers who had planted maize. The double-hurdle model was used for statistical analysis.Results: The results show a negative association between social grant dependency and market participation, suggesting that social grant-dependent households are more subsistent, producing less marketable surplus. Moreover, households with access to social grants sold less quantities of maize in the market, indicating reduced selling incentives.Conclusion: The study indicates that social grants reduce the incentives of smallholder farmers to commercialise their production activities. The results suggest that, while policies aimed at reducing transaction costs would increase smallholder market participation, attention should be paid on how to reduce social grants’ dis-incentive effects. To reduce spill over effects to unintended household members, the study recommends offering part of the grant as ‘in-kind support’, which is specific to the intended individual beneficiary.

Previous studies have shown that air pollution has an effect on maize production and can also influence yield. Since the pollution load at Sasolburg exceeds certain air quality standards, it is identified as a ‘hot spot’ and is therefore a perfect region to conduct studies regarding the impact of air pollution on maize production. The Northern Free State region is well known for its high maize production and residents of towns up to 50 km away from Sasolburg indicated that they can smell the fumes of the Sasolburg industries. This study included status of maize production over the past 5 years by visiting farmers every 25 km from Sasolburg, for 100 km. Thus, 4 sampling points of 25 km intervals have been visited. Farmers were asked to fill in questionnaires and provide information related to air pollution and maize production. This was done in three different directions from Sasolburg. It is expected that maize yield near Sasolburg will be less than yield far from Sasolburg if pollution influence maize production. Average maize production by the Free State province as well as individual farmers, and other published and unpublished data which were used, concluded that maize production is in fact, influenced by the air pollution from Sasolburg, low income residents burning coal and other substances in the Sasolburg region. The research also indicated that new technology and techniques make it possible for farmers to maximize maize yield and still, year by year, increase the maize production on their farms. South Africa is able to adapt and work around the air pollution problem, but will enter a downwards maize production curve when the original pollution problem is not addressed. It is therefore recommended that the problem of air pollution in the Sasolburg region be solved, rather than adapting to the circumstances with new agricultural technologies. This study has contributed to maize production, air pollution influences on maize yield and farmer awareness in the Sasolburg region and nearby towns.

This paper focused on crops production under Crop Intensification Program (CIP) with an overall objective of generating knowledge about the impact of CIP on crops production in Rwanda. The purpose of this study was to assess whether the Crop Intensification Program is effective in boosting Maize Production yields among the maize growers in the sector. Specifically, the researcher analyzed Maize production before and after the program. According to Paraid t test, there is difference between Maize before and after CIP because t stat (= 2.69) is greater than t critical value (= 2. 13) and P value (= 0. 03) which is less than 0. 05 and this means that there is significance between Maize crop production before and after CIP. The result showed that, CIP increased Maize production in Rwanda due to improved seed and fertilizers use. However, even if the CIP has a positive impact on Maize production, there is a long way to go if VISION 2020 and MDG1 are to be achieved and three major constraints were mentioned that hamper Maize production and these were the low commercialization of Maize output, climate related shocks and harvest and post-harvest handling constraints. To overcome these constraints the government of Rwanda and MINAGRI in particular should create market opportunities to Maize growers in order to help them to generate income which through it, they will improve their living conditions and purchase seeds, fertilizers and others related inputs for the next agricultural season. This study concludes that the CIP has a positive impact on Maize crop production due to the increase of productive inputs (fertilizers use), of improved seeds, Improvement of irrigation, district and sector agronomists.

Water management options based on rainfall analysis for rainfed maize (Zea mays L.) production in Rushinga district, Zimbabwe