Algal capture of carbon dioxide; biomass generation as a tool for greenhouse gas mitigation with reference to New Zealand energy strategy and policy

Soil acidity and salinity have important roles in determining soil fertility and plant productivity. Addition of soil conditioner to increase soil fertility and plant productivity should consider its acidity and salinity. In developing aquatic plants for soil conditioner, analyzes of their acidity and salinity property is necessary. The aim of this study is to analyze the acidity and salinity property from differnt sources of aquatic plants, i.e: fresh water, brackish water and marine plants. All collected aquatic plants were dried and mashed into powder. The resulted powder were then added by water to test their acidity and salinity using pH meter and refractometer. Results indicated that, fresh water aquatic plants have lower pH, whichi i 5.2, whereas from brackish and marine water have similar pH, i.e: 7. Soil conditioner from fresh water plant is suitable for base soil, while from brackish and marine plants are suitable for normal soil. However, Study from their salinity indicated that, their high salinity of brackish water plants (16 ppt) and marine water plants (43 ppt) need pretreatment by washing and diluting with fresh water.

The major gas leading to global warming and greenhouse gas emission is elevated carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which called for effective carbon dioxide mitigation technologies. Traditional carbon dioxide mitigation methods included capture and storage, which involved a series of technologies such as absorption, adsorption, gas-separation membranes and cryogenic distillation. However, these methodologies are considered as cost expensive and non-sustainable. A promising technology is the biological capture of carbon dioxide by using microalgae, which have fast growth rate and high photosynthetic efficiency. The microalgae can fix CO2 using solar energy with efficiency of ten to fifty times greater than terrestrial plant, and can be cultivated on non-fertile land. In this review, the promising microalgae for effective CO2 fixation and the effect of CO2 fixation by microalgae are introduced. The effect of reactor configurations, light intensity, the light/dark cycle, temperature, pH, CO2 concentration, CO2 fixation rates, mass transfer and nutrients requirement (including nutrients such as N and P derived from a variety of wastewater sources. e.g., agricultural run-off, concentrated animal feed operations, and industrial and municipal wastewater) on CO2 fixation are analyzed. Finally, the application and economic viability as well as future trends and perspectives of microalgae biological CO2 fixation are also discussed in depth.

Freshwater plants, or macrophytes, make up only 1-2% of all plant species on Earth but play a crucial role in aquatic ecosystems. They are key to primary production, provide habitat and food for various organisms, and influence water quality. Despite their importance, freshwater plants face significant threats from global changes, which necessitates research at broader scales. Historically, freshwater plants have been less studied than terrestrial plants, partly due to a lack of global data and a focus on local scales by ecologists. Unlike terrestrial plants, freshwater plants do not always follow the same ecological patterns. In this text, we summarise current knowledge on three well-known macroecological patterns and how they differ between freshwater and terrestrial plants: latitude-species richness gradient, Rapoport’s rule and species replacement vs. species richness differences of beta diversity. For example, terrestrial plants follow the latitudinal diversity gradient hypothesis, whereas species richness peaks in the sub-tropics for freshwater plants. Although findings on Rapoport’s rule are less clear, research on terrestrial plants in North America shows that turnover (i.e., species replacing each other) is more significant in areas with high species richness and environmental stability, whereas nestedness (i.e., species composition at one site is a subset of a richer site) is more common in species-poor areas with high environmental variability. For freshwater plants, beta diversity patterns vary with latitude, but species replacement generally dominates over nestedness. Overall, freshwater plants exhibit unique macroecological patterns that differ from terrestrial plants, highlighting the need for more extensive research to understand their biodiversity and ecological roles. This can be achieved with more harmonized data sets and equal research efforts in both realms. Better knowledge of macroecological patterns and their drivers for freshwater plants is crucial for conservation efforts and policy-making aimed at preserving plant species diversity and sustaining ecosystem services in freshwater environments.

Marine and freshwater plants and their abilities for detoxication of xenobiotics

This article reviews renewable energy programs and policies as a result of the resurgence in demand for fossil fuels. Australia and selected countries are considered through the lens of energy justice. The range of countries evidence a resurgence in demand for fossil fuels, such as coal and gas, in the wake of disruptive global events. For example, the war in Ukraine, Middle East conflicts and pandemics such as COVID, can be seen as major global disruptors of renewable energy policies and projects. While Australia’s renewable energy in contrast to non-renewable energy is the focus, a mix of selected countries are chosen as comparators. The selected countries capture how governments are navigating the fiscal/economic, political and environmental tensions between renewable and non-renewable energy sources, policies, programs and laws. The two research questions ask ‘What current and proposed policy and laws address the energy justice economic, environmental and political aspects of the climate-related transition plans to renewable energy?’ as well as ‘Can the mix of non-renewable and renewable energy resources be quantitively ranked against economic, political and environmental pressures?’ The first question adopts the method of desktop research, conducted to produce policy and legislation data that are linked together with the qualitative method of narrative. For instance, the Australian legislative focus will be taxation law. For the second question, a quantitative method using the ‘energy justice metric’ is adopted. In particular, the research builds and adapts the parameters of the energy justice metric for all comparator countries. The results are plotted on a ternary phase diagram. The highlights of this article include the raising of awareness of energy policy distractions to renewable programs as a result of the resurgence in demand for fossil fuels, such as coal and gas, in the wake of disruptive global events. The essence of the article points towards how energy justice principles can enable resilience in policy decisions despite these disruptor issues and countries can continue to move towards a just transition to a low carbon economy. Plain English summary There are major dilemmas facing countries today in the shift towards sustainable energy policies. Issues include funding for renewable energy programs and policies, alongside the resurgence in demand for fossil fuels, such as coal and gas, due to disruptive global events (such as military conflicts, COVID-19 and extreme weather). This research considers the energy market tensions for the supply of fossil fuels, and the impact on renewable energy policies and laws. Through qualitative and metric-based questions, the trajectory of Australia, a fossil fuel rich country, is evaluated, and then its progress is compared with a range of countries including France, Trinidad-Tobago, Guyana, French Guiana, Iran, Malaysia, Kenya and Uganda. Thus, energy policy success and failures are explored from across the world. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of data using the energy justice metric shows the progress of their just energy transitions. The findings indicate positive steps in the journey of a just transition to a low-carbon economy. The modelling supports the research outcomes on key dilemmas arising from energy resource policies in these selected countries. Achieving the 2015 Paris Agreement emission targets remains elusive, but a justice-framed energy policy transition is the first step for many of these fossil fuel intense nations.

Limits to Paris compatibility of CO2 capture and utilization

Methane hydrate exists in huge amounts in certain locations, in sea sediments and the geological structures below them, at low temperature and high pressure. Production methods are in development to produce the methane to a floating platform. There it can be reformed to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide, in an endothermic process. Some of the methane can be burned to provide heat energy to develop all needed power on the platform and to support the reforming process. After separation, the hydrogen is the valuable and transportable product. All carbon dioxide produced on the platform can be separated from other gases and then sequestered in the sea as carbon dioxide hydrate. In this way, hydrogen is made available without the release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, and the hydrogen could be an enabling step toward a world hydrogen economy.

Nearly all scenarios for future U.S. energy supply systems show heavy dependence on coal. The magnitude depends on assumptions as to reliance on nuclear fission, degree of electrification, and rate of GNP growth, and ranges from 700 million tons to 2300 million tons per year. However, potential climate change resulting from increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may prevent coal from playing a major role. The carbon in the carbon dioxide produced from fossil fuels each year is about 1/10 the net primary production by terrestrial plants, but the fossil fuel production has been growing exponentially at 4.3% per year. Observed atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased from 315 ppm in 1958 to 330 ppm in 1974 - in 1900, before much fossil fuel was burned, it was about 290–295 ppm. Slightly over one-half the CO2 released from fossil fuels is accounted for by the increase observed in the atmosphere; at present growth rates the quantities are doubling every 15–18 years. Atmospheric models suggest a global warming of about 2 K if the concentration were to rise to two times its pre-1900 value - enough to change the global climate in major (but largely unknown) ways. With the current rate of increase in fossil fuel use, the atmospheric concentration should reach these levels by about 2030. A shift to coal as a replacement for oil and gas gives more carbon dioxide per unit of energy; thus if energy growth continues with a concurrent shift toward coal, high concentrations can be reached somewhat earlier. Even projections with very heavy reliance on non-fossil energy (Neihaus) after 2000 show atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations reaching 475 ppm.

We are faced with chronic water and energy vulnerabilities. Some argue that we will face two crises in the 21st century: a water crisis and an energy crisis (Brown 1998, 2003, Flavin 1999, Feffer 2008). Water will become increasingly scarce as water tables drop due to over-consumption and water quality will continue to deteriorate as a result of excessive contamination. Further, the present energy regime’s dependence on non-renewable sources has added considerable stress to the environment, including the prospect of climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007). We are amidst a situation where we could be easily blamed for compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. This paper first briefly describes a need for understanding the integrated considerations of water and energy in resource planning, especially during droughts. After introducing a conceptual framework of the water-energy integration, this paper reviews the results of a national survey of energy and water departments to see how these synergic benefits are explored at the state level. Lessons learned from our case studies serve as useful guidelines for state water-energy planning and program development. Finally, as an example case of the water-energy nexus, the concept of desalination is introduced with its implication on energy demand.

Dense, conspicuous colonies of seabirds and pinnipeds breed on ocean islands throughout the world. Such colonies have been shown to have local impacts on prey populations, but whether or not they affect nutrient cycling has been debated. We determined the natural abundance levels of the stable isotopes (C and N) of primary producers, seabirds and other consumers at and near St. Paul Island, Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea, in summer 1993. Marine primary producers (phytoplankton, as particulate organic matter, and kelp) collected near seabird colonies were ca. 6.5‰ enriched in both 15N and 13C relative to those collected further from shore. Terrestrial plants collected near the seabird colonies were enriched in 15N (δ15N ca. 22‰) compared with conspecifics collected away from the colonies (δ15N ca. 11‰). The trend towards higher δ15N values in marine and terrestrial plants near bird colonies is consistent with their uptake of ornithogenic N. This 15N-enrichment of plants using ornithogenic N can be attributed to a combination of two processes: trophic enrichment, and volatilization of ammonia produced during degradation of terrestrially deposited guano. Seabird breeding colonies at St. Paul Island appear to be significant sources of recycled nitrogen for terrestrial plants in the vicinity of colonies and for phytoplankton in the nearshore zone.

Catalyst: Chemistry’s Role in Providing Clean and Affordable Energy for All

Contents. Acknowledgements. Preface. Part 1: Pollutant Emissions. Analysis of Multiple Emission Strategies in Energy Markets J.A. Beamon, R.T. Eynon. Mercury in Illinois Coats: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Effects I. Demir. Characterization of Particulate Matter with Computer-Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy S.A. Benson, et al. Dioxin and Furan Formation in FBC Boilers L. Jia, et al. Reducing Emissions of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons from Coal Tar Pitches J.M. Andresen, et al. Part 2: Carbon Sequestration. Carbon Sequestration: An Option for Mitigating Global Climate Change R.L. Kane, D.E. Klein. Using a Life Cycle Approach in Analyzing the Net Energy and Global Warming Potential of Power Production via Fossil Fuels with C02 Sequestration Compared to Biomass P.L. Spath. Carbon Storage and Sequestration as Mineral Carbonates D.J. Fauth, et al. Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide by Ocean Fertilization M. Markels, et al. Polyelectrolyte Cages for a Novel Biomimetic CO2 Sequestration System F.A. Simsek-Ege, et al. Novel Solid Sorbents for Carbon Dioxide Capture Y. Soong et al. Part 3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Control. Near Zero Emission Power Plants as Future CO2 Control Technologies P. Mathieu. Reducing Greenhouse Emissions from Lignite Power Generation by Improving Current Drying Technologies G. Favas, et al. Reduction Process Of CO2 Emissions by Treating With Waste Concrete via an Artificial Weathering Process A. Yamasaki, et al. Understanding Brown Coal-Water Interaction to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions L.M. Clemow, et al. High Temperature Combustion of Methane over Thermally Stable CoO-MgO Catalyst for Controlling MethaneEmissions from Oil/Gas-Fired Furnaces V.R. Choudhary, et al. Dual-Bed Catalytic System for Removal of NOx-N2O in Lean-Burn Engine Exhausts A.R. Vaccaro, et al. Part 4: Utilization of CO2 of CO2 for Synthesis Gas Production. Tri-reforming of Natural Gas Using CO2 in Flue Gas of Power Plants without CO2 Pre-separation for Production of Synthesis Gas with Desired H2O/CO Ratios C. Song, et al. Effect of Pressure on Catalyst Activity and Carbon Deposition During CO2 Reforming of Methane over Noble-Metal Catalysts A. Shamsi, C.D. Johnson. CO2 Reforming of CH4 to Syngas over Ni Supported on Nano-g-Al2O3 Jun Mei Wei, et al. Oxy-CO2 Reforming and Oxy-CO2 Steam Reforming of Methane to Syngas over CoxNi1-xO/MgO/SA-5205 V.R. Choudhary, et al. Carbon Routes In Carbon Dioxide Reforming of Methane L. Pinaeva, et al. Part 5: Utilization of CO2 for chemical synthesis. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) applied to the synthesis of methanol. Comparison of the use of syngas with the use of CO2 and dihydrogen produced from renewables M. Aresta, et al. Reduction of CO2 in Steam Using a Photocatalytic Process to Form Formic Acid D.D. Link, C.E. Taylor. Carbon Dioxide as a Soft Oxidant: Dehydrogenation of Ethylbenzene Into Styrene S.-E. Park, et al. CO2 as a C1-Building Block for Dialkyl Carbonate Synthesis D. Ballivet-Tkatchenko. Part 6: Combustion Byproducts. An Investigation of the Characteristics of Unburned Carbon in Oil Fly Ash Y.-M. Hsieh, M.-S. Tsai. Separation of Fly Ash Carbons

The energy system dominates human-induced carbon flows on our planet. Globally, six billion tons of carbon are contained in the fossil fuels removed from below the ground every year. More than 90% of the carbon in fossil fuels is used for energy purposes, with carbon dioxide as the carbon product and the atmosphere as the initial destination for the carbon dioxide. Significantly affecting the carbon flows associated with fossil fuels is an immense undertaking. Four principal technological approaches are available to affect these carbon flows: (1) Fossil fuels and other energy resources can be utilized more efficiently; (2) Energy sources other than fossil fuels can be used; (3) Carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels can be trapped and redirected, preventing it from reaching the atmosphere (fossil carbon sequestration); and (4) One can work outside the energy system to remove carbon dioxide biologically from the atmosphere (biological carbon sequestration). An optimum carbon management strategy will surely implement all four approaches and a wise R&D program will have vigorous sub-programs in all four areas. These programs can be effective by integrating scenario analyses into the planning process. A number of future scenarios must be evaluated to determine the need for the new technologies in a future energy mix. This planning activity must be an iterative process. At present, R&D in the first two areas--energy efficiency and non-fossil fuel energy resources--is relatively well developed. By contrast, R&D in the third and the fourth areas--the two carbon sequestration options--is less well developed. The task before the workshop was to recommend ways to initiate a vigorous carbon sequestration research program without compromising the strength of the current programs in the first two areas. We recommend that this task be fulfilled by initiating several new programs in parallel. First, we recommend that a vigorous carbon sequestration program be launched. We have confidence that the time is ripe for this new undertaking. Several studies conducted over the past two years have scoped out the research issues that need to be explored and have revealed a wide variety of technological approaches that call out for detailed analysis and field testing. Second, we recommend that R&D efforts in the areas of efficient energy use and clean energy (technologies not using fossil resources or significantly reducing carbon emissions per unit of energy generated) be maintained and strengthened. The lead times necessary for market penetration of successful technologies when they are needed require a robust federally funded R&D program. Third, we recommend that a broad carbon management research program be properly integrated into all four of the approaches listed above. Specifically, we recommend four elements of such a program: (1) A program in support of decision-oriented research, emphasizing life-cycle analysis systems and risk analysis, with the concomitant development of tools for technology assessment, cross-technology comparison, and analysis of externalities. (2) A program designed to support a small number of research centers, each focusing on a specific area of carbon management, creatively combining several disciplinary approaches and featuring strong industry participation. (3) A program in support of investigator-initiated research; and (4) A program focused on effective means of engaging the public. All of these initiatives must give considerable weight to the consideration of the social implications of the technologies under investigation. We believe that public acceptance will be and should be a critical determinant of the evolution of the technologies, whose promise the proposed program is designed to explore.

Certain gases that are capable of trapping heat in the Earth’s atmosphere are known as “greenhouse gas” and are important for helping to regulate temperature. Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide as a combustion product and atmospheric concentrations have increased dramatically over the past two centuries. The heat trapped by this additional greenhouse gas is changing climates, melting ice sheets and glaciers in polar regions, raising sea levels, and affecting ocean currents. Climate change can be mitigated by preventing the emission of additional fossil fuel combustion products to the atmosphere and reducing existing greenhouse gas levels back to pre-industrial revolution concentrations. This requires switching energy production to sustainable, non-fossil sources and applying carbon capture, use, and storage technology on the fossil fuel combustion that remains. The implementation of direct air capture technology to reduce existing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can further remediate climate impacts. Captured carbon dioxide can be stored in plant tissues, soils, deep underground in geological repositories, or as solid materials like concrete or carbonates to keep it from reentering the atmosphere. Although non-carbon energy sources have recently become more cost-competitive with fossil energy, technological advancements and government policies are still needed to overcome the inherent economic advantages of fossil fuels. A global strategy must be developed to convince people that the higher cost of clean, sustainable energy is a price worth paying to replace fossil fuels and prevent a major environmental calamity. Cited as: Soeder, D. J. Greenhouse gas sources and mitigation strategies from a geosciences perspective. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2021, 5(3): 274-285, doi: 10.46690/ager.2021.03.04

One of the largest innovations in the twentieth century is the use of petroleum (and other fossil fuels, such as, coal, and natural gases) for the energy source that supports the human society. Petroleum is an easy-to-use, energy-intensive fuel as well as a material for a variety of chemical products. It is produced by pumping-up from natural underground reservoirs. In 2006, petroleum and other fossil fuels support 86% of the total energy supply for the human society (Energy Information Administration 2007), indicating that they are currently indispensable for us. Recently, however, humans face problems associated with the use of fossil fuels. One of such problems is the limitation in fossil fuels stored in our planet. It is known that fossil fuels (as the name indicates) had been mostly generated by long-term geochemical reactions with ancient plants and algae as original resources and accumulate in underground reservoirs. Such reactions may also occur currently, while the recent consumption of fossil fuels is much faster than that, resulting in the rapid decrease in the amounts of fossil fuels in underground reservoirs. In addition, a large fraction of petroleum stored in easily accessible reservoirs is considered to have already been consumed, and engineers predict that the cost for producing petroleum will dramatically increase in the 21th century. Another problem results from the combustion of fossil fuels; this process generates carbon dioxide that is released and accumulates in the air, resulting in the green-house effect and global warming. According to an assessment report in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18°C during the 20th century (IPCC 2007). This increase corresponds to an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere (from 0.03% to 0.037%) in the 20th century (Global Warming Art 2007). We therefore consider that the use of fossil fuels is such a process that converts underground carbons into carbon dioxides and release them into the atmosphere. Under such circumstances, energy sources alternative to fossil fuels are strongly desired for supporting human activities in the 21th century, particularly those that are renewable and not associated with the global warming. The primary important is the solar energy. It has been estimated that the amount of solar energy that strikes the Earth every hour (~4.3×1020 J) is approximately equal to the total amount of energy consumed by human society every year (Donohue & Cogdell 2006). Hence, global energy needs can be substantially satisfied even with a small fraction of the available solar energy, and the use of photovoltaic solar cells (Fahrenbruch & Bube 1983) is currently expanding. We also consider that biomass is another important renewable energy source. Biomass includes all biologically synthesized