Agriculture and the Conditions of Postwar Trading

Purpose – This paper analyzes the relationship between trade facilitation and agricultural products exports and estimates the effects of trade facilitation in importing countries on Chinese agricultural products exports, which is of great significance for promoting agricultural trade between China,Japan and Korea and the governments of the three countries to formulate targeted trade facilitation policies. Design/methodology – Based on Wilson (2003) theoretical framework, this paper sets up its own trade facilitation level measurement system by involving four primary indicators and fifteen secondary indicators to evaluate the trade facilitation levels of Japan and Korea from 2011 to 2018 respectively. The paper selected the data on China s agricultural exports at the HS4 level from 2011-2018 and used a fixed-effects model to estimate the effect of changes in trade facilitation levels in trading partner countries on China s agricultural trade. Findings – Our main findings can be summarized as follows: the level of trade facilitation in importing countries has a significantly positive effect on China’s agricultural exports. The higher the level of trade facilitation in trading partner countries, the more Chinese agricultural exports trade, i.e. for every 1 percentage point increase in the level of trade facilitation, the volume of exports will increase by 2.299%.The sub-sample test shows that China s main agricultural products exported to Japan and Korea, such as aquatic products, vegetables, fruits and other perishable fresh products, are particularly significantly affected by the level of trade facilitation. Originality/value – First, from the innovation of the research perspective, which is different from the analysis of the existing paper on the overall trade facilitation of all traded commodities. This article is based on the close trade relations between China, Japan and Korea, and the particularity of agricultural products, from the perspective of China’s agricultural exports to Japan and Korea, discuss the impact of importing countries—Japan and Korea’s trade facilitation levels on China’s agricultural exports;Secondly, in this paper, the hierarchical data of the HS4 quartile is used to avoid the information loss of the industry, and to analyse the impact of the importing country’s trade facilitation level on the export of different types of agricultural products more scientifically.

Purpose - This study examines the structure of agricultural export sophistication, export efficiency, and the potential of South Korea’s agricultural products for Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) countries. Design/Methodology – This study evaluates the agricultural export sophistication of RCEP countries and investigate export sophistication’s effects on the efficiency and potential of South Korea’s agricultural exports to RCEP countries. To this end, we construct a stochastic frontier gravity model (SFGM) based on panel data of agricultural product trade and other factors that impact agricultural imports and exports between South Korea and 36 countries from 2001 to 2020. Using this “one-step method” trade inefficiency model, we evaluate the impact of export sophistication on export efficiency and potential and calculate trade efficiency and potential. Findings – The results reveal a growing trend in the structure of global and RCEP countries’ agricultural export sophistication where the export sophistication of the target countries positively impacts Korea’s agricultural exports to those nations. In addition, RCEP member countries accounted for 50% of the top ten countries in the 2020 trade efficiency ranking, and the average trade efficiency of RCEP member countries show an upward trend. Originality/value - South Korea is geographically close to most RCEP countries, which facilitates agricultural trade. Moreover, there are significant differences in climate conditions and resource endowments between South Korea and most RCEP countries, providing opportunities for expanding agricultural trade with these nations. This study contributes to the extant literature by further exploring the trade efficiency and potential of Korea’s agricultural exports to RCEP countries by considering export sophistication as an important potential factor affecting the competitiveness of Korea’s agricultural exports and analyzing the relationship between the structure of export sophistication and the trade efficiency of Korea’s agricultural product exports to RCEP members.

The article is devoted to the study of the problems and challenges of agricultural exports of Ukraine in the conditions of war. It was determined that before the beginning of the full-scale invasion, the country occupied a leading position in the world production of major agricultural crops (sunflower, rapeseed, barley, corn, wheat, soybeans). A comprehensive assessment of Ukraine's export positions in the world was carried out and the countries most dependent on the import of Ukrainian grain were identified. The dynamics of the domestic export of cereals, legumes (with products of their processing) and flour for the period from 2020/2021 MR to August 2023/2024 MR have been analyzed. The author has researched and systematized the problems of reducing the volume of export deliveries of Ukrainian grain to the world market. It is substantiated that part of the problems and challenges are macroeconomic in nature and complicate the development of the country's economy, distort market pricing mechanisms and reduce the competitiveness of domestic products. Among them is the risk of losing the country's reputation as a reliable supplier; loss of markets and trading partners; destruction of logistics and transport infrastructure; reduction of production volumes; change in demand; limiting access to resources; devaluation of the national currency, etc. A systematic analysis of the problems and challenges complicating agricultural export made it possible to single out the main ones: reduction in agricultural production volumes and loss of resource potential; limited financial resources; disruption of logistics chains. Special attention was paid to the problem of sea transportation, which before the beginning of the war provided about 95 % of agricultural exports. The dynamics of Ukraine's export volumes within the framework of the "grain initiative" during 2022- 2023 are analyzed. The role and significance of its implementation to mitigate the negative impact of Russia's military aggression on domestic agricultural exports is described. The reasons for the importance of sea transportation for Ukrainian exports have been determined: large volumes of supplies and their low cost. Emphasis is placed on the need to export by sea, even without the participation of Russia. The author researched the measures implemented by the Ukrainian government to support agricultural production and export and justified the need to develop a set of measures to stabilize and further develop the industry and restore the export of agricultural products. Among them are the following: reduction of bureaucratic barriers; state support for the development of logistics infrastructure, optimization of taxation and lending; adaptation of agricultural production to EU requirements; increasing the quality and safety of products in accordance with international standards; technological development and digitalization; restoration and transition of the agricultural sector to sustainable production. Key words: agricultural production, export, agricultural export, agricultural export problems, "grain initiative".

The thesis studies the current status and structural changes of agricultural product trade in China and countries along “Silk Road Economic Belt”. It also analyzes the trade evolution traits based on comparative advantages and indexes analysis in apparent regions. Research demonstrates: trade scales of agricultural products in China and relevant countries constantly expands, the overall import volumes exceeds the export volumes, and the status of trade deficit has persisted for long periods. The 0th type of agricultural products are the primary, and the 2nd type of products are the secondary of China’s exports to relevant countries. Comparative advantages are significantly different in agricultural product trade, mainly concentrating in Asia-Europe economic belt. Therefore, China should continue to enhance comprehensive cooperation with countries along the “Silk Road Economic Belt”, stabilize the market of agricultural products in Asia-Europe economic belt, exploit the potential of agricultural product export trade in Central Asia economic belt, expand the market of agricultural products in Central Asia economic belt, and maintain sustainability of Chinese agricultural product export trade.

In recent years, China's agricultural product export trade has achieved rapid growth with the help of cross-border e-commerce platforms, which has played a positive role in China's agricultural and economic development. Based on the construction of China's cross-border e-commerce development index through the Entropy method, this paper uses 2008-2019 agricultural product import and export big data to establish a model, and then analyzes the relationship between cross-border e-commerce and China's agricultural product export trade. The results show that cross-border e-commerce has indeed promoted the export trade of agricultural products. However, the agricultural product logistics system is not sound enough, and the quality of agricultural products needs to be improved, which restricts the development of China's agricultural export. Based on the analysis, this article believes that the problem can be solved in terms of improving logistics capabilities, improving quality, and increasing talent training.

The analysis of intra-industry trade and inter-industry trade in international trade in different regions can fully explain the status of export trade and the advantages and disadvantages of products in different regions. The purpose of this research is to analyze the overall agricultural trade situation between China and Ukraine and the nature of the specific trade. To analyze agricultural import and export trade data between China and Ukraine, the author uses the Grubel-Lloyd index (intra-industry trade index) and the Brulhart index (the marginal inter-industry trade index in a specific period). The Grubel-Lloyd index measures the intra-industry trade of a particular product. The Brulhart index is closely related to that of intra-industry trade, that being the export and import of the same items, but concerns changes in exports and imports between two points in time as opposed to their values at a given point in time. The research is based on data for 2011-2020, which are contained in the UN Comtrade database. The research results show that agricultural trade between China and Ukraine is mutually beneficial. The difference in agricultural resource endowment and agricultural structure directly affects the trade of agricultural products between the two countries. The agricultural products exported from China to Ukraine are mainly unprocessed or primary processed agricultural products. Seafood, meat products, fruits, and vegetables account for a large proportion. The main imports are also primary processed agricultural products such as grains and vegetable oils. The agricultural product trade between the two countries is mainly based on intra-industry trade, and the difference in agricultural technology level is an important factor in determining bilateral agricultural exports.

Based on the total cost theory of international trade, this article analyzes the mechanism of trade facilitation to agricultural products export, tests the actual promotion effect of trade facilitation to export of Chinese agricultural products by the United States, Japan, South Korea and 28 EU countries based on the extended gravity model. The project is designed by students and teachers .The research shows that the reduction of cross-border time has a positive effect on China’s agricultural products export, but the promoting effect is weakened by the negative impact of technical trade measures for agricultural products. Further research shows that the effect of cross-border time reduction on Chinese agricultural products export is heterogeneous. Due to the negative impact of technical trade measures for agricultural products, the cross-border time reduction in developed countries has a strong role in promoting China’s agricultural exports; while the cross-border time reduction in non-developed countries has no significant role to promote Chinese agricultural products export, and the technical trade measures involving agricultural product have no inhibiting effect on the promotion of cross-border time reduction. The empirical test also proves the effectiveness of the above research project. Therefore, for the aim to strengthen the export of Chinese agricultural products to the above-mentioned countries, China should not only take advantage of the positive impact of trade facilitation, but also effectively resolve the negative impact of technical trade measures for agricultural products. At the end of this paper, some suggestions and countermeasures are put forward.

Purpose. The aim of the article is to analyse China’s agricultural import and export in the context of global geopolitical transformations and identification of trends, challenges, and opportunities for the state’s agricultural policy based on this analysis. Methodology of research. The following methods were used in the research: analysis and synthesis to evaluate the dynamics, product, and geographical structure of China’s agricultural foreign trade; SWOT analysis to assess the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities of the state’s agricultural policy; abstract and logical method to summarize information from various sources and create a comprehensive understanding of the researched problem, forming theoretical conclusions and generalizations; and graphical method to visualize the research results. Findings. It was found that in 2023, the dynamics of China’s foreign trade in agricultural products continued to show a growth trend that has been observed over the past decade. It was demonstrated that the development of China’s agricultural exports has effectively contributed to the deep expansion and diversification of the agricultural value chain, opening new opportunities for promoting high-quality agricultural development. At the same time, it was noted that China has abolished non-tariff measures on agricultural products and export subsidies for all agricultural products, making it one of the most open markets for agricultural products. However, it was proven that in terms of imports, China remains one of the most dependent countries in the world, which is related to the relatively small area of arable land, large population, and insufficient intensification, technological development, and mechanization of tangible agricultural production. Originality. The research on trends in the development of China’s international trade in agricultural products in the post-COVID period has been further developed, taking into account new geopolitical realities. Using the SWOT analysis method, the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities of China’s agricultural policy were identified. Practical value. The substantiated conclusions and recommendations derived from the research can be used to determine the strategic directions for the development of China’s trade relations, as well as to intensify agricultural trade flows between Ukraine and China. Key words: international trade, export, import, agriculture, peripheral regions, foreign policy, global risks, competitiveness.

Bu çalışmada reel efektif döviz kurunun (RDK) ve reel efektif döviz kur oynaklığının (RDKU) Türkiye‘nin tarımsal dış ticareti üzerine etkisi araştırılmıştır. Çalışmada, Türkiye‘nin tarımsal dış ticaretindeki 25 önemli ülke ile 1990-2012 periyodunda panel veri analizleri kullanılmıştır. RDKU‘yu elde etmek için IGARCH modeli uygulanmıştır. Bu çalışmada RDK ve RDKU Türkiye'nin tarımsal dış ticaretine etkisi, hem ülke bazında hem de panel olarak FMOLS modeli ile incelenmiştir. FMOLS modeli sonuçlarına göre; RDK‘nın %1 artması durumunda Türkiye‘nin tarımsal ithalatı %7,61, tarımsal ihracatın ise %2,24 artış gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. RDKU‘nun %1 artması durumunda, tarımsal ithalatın %18,83 azaldığı belirlenmiştir. Öte yandan tarımsal ihracat ve reel efektif döviz kur oynaklığı arasında anlamlı bir ilişkiye rastlanılmamıştır. Sonuç itibariyle mevcut sektörel problemler ve reel efektif döviz kuru ve oynaklığının Türkiye‘nin tarımsal dış ticaretinde dengesizliğe yol açtığı söylenebilir. Tarımsal üreticiler ve sanayiciler döviz kuru oynaklığından çoğu zaman olumsuz etkilenmektedirler. Bu sebeplerden dolayı, tarımsal üretici ve sanayiciler için koruyucu tedbirlerin alınması önem arz etmektedir.

Purpose. As a European granary, Ukraine has rich agricultural resources. China is a country with a large population and has a large demand for food. However, the agricultural trade between the two countries has only achieved rapid development in recent years, and is not closely linked in related trade areas. This article studies the current situation of agricultural trade between the two sides, analyzes the trade data, finds out challenges, and provides suggestions for further promoting trade cooperation between the two sides.
 Methodology / approach. The categories 1, 2, 3, and 4 under the HS Code of the General Merchandise Trade Statistics Database of the People’s Republic of China are used as agricultural trade statistics categories with a time span of 2014–2019 trade data. The relevant data of agricultural product trade are sorted and there is statistics, which objectively explain the current status of trade exchanges between the two sides; the results of the analysis of the trade data are put forward, and the problems existing in the development of China-Ukraine trade and the factors affecting the development are raised.
 Results. According to the results of the analysis, from 2014 to 2019, China’s agricultural products imported from Ukraine accounted for 45.5 % of the total import trade. Agricultural products occupy a very important position in China’s import trade from Ukraine in terms of trade scale. Among them, the import of cereals and other products accounted for 95.7 % of the total imported plant products. Ukraine, the European granary, has become China's main food importer. In 2019, China replaced India as the largest food importer of Ukraine; In terms of export trade, mechanical and electrical products, base metals and light industrial products occupy an important position. From 2014 to 2019, China’s agricultural exports to Ukraine accounted for only 2.6 % of the total export trade, which is a small share. This shows that China and Ukraine have strong complementarity in terms of total trade volume and agricultural product trade. In the future, the two countries can further strengthen cooperation to expand their own advantages and better promote the development of trade between the two countries.
 Originality / scientific novelty. Due to the geographical distance between China and Ukraine, the political instability of the post-independence republic as a former Soviet Union led to less economic and trade exchanges between Ukraine and China. Scientists did not study much on economic and trade relations between China and Ukraine. Most of the research deal with macro trade policy aspects, but the innovation of this article lies in the use of statistical data for empirical analysis, to show the current status of trade between the two sides, and to make recommendations for the further development of bilateral trade.
 Practical value / implications. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Ukraine in 1992, the relations between the two countries have developed smoothly. In 2011, the two countries established a strategic partnership of cooperation. Subsequently, trade cooperation in various fields has continued to develop, especially in the agricultural product trade. In recent years, total agricultural trade has doubled. In 2019, China became the largest importer of Ukrainian agricultural products. After China proposed the implementation of the «Belt and Road» initiative, Ukraine actively participated in the «Belt and Road» framework agreement. The research on agricultural trade between the two sides will be of great significance to promote further and deeper cooperation between the two sides in the field of agricultural trade and expand and create a wider development space.

As an agricultural country, the export of China's agricultural products are often suffered the restrictions from the green barriers. The positive green barriers can regulate the agricultural production in China, and promote the agricultural development and international trade; on the other hand, the negative green barriers would increase the cost of trade, trade friction, and prevent the development of international trade. So the research of influence of green barriers on China’s agricultural products is very realistic. According to the influence of green barriers on China’s agricultural exports, the corresponding countermeasures can be made to deal with the green barriers and improvement of China’s competitiveness in the international competition. This study examines the causes, influences and methods of green barriers on China’s agricultural products export based on the questionnaires of 200 staffs of agricultural trade companies in Xi’an of Shaanxi province in China. To address this issue, Partial Least Square method is applied and the empirical result shows that there is a positive and significant effect from causes, influences, and methods towards the China’s agricultural products export.

The trade of agricultural products plays an essential role in agricultural development. Agricultural trade is more complicated and diversified than other industrial products, influenced by product characteristics for perishable. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of the most important markets for China’s agricultural exports. This study aimed to analyze the impact of trade facilitation indicators on China’s agricultural exports to ASEAN countries. A gravity model was adopted by taking the volume of Chinese agricultural exports to ASEAN countries from 2006–2020 as the dependent variable. Indicators such as economic freedom (EF), trade across borders (TAB), and infrastructure quality (Infra) were introduced that were representing trade facilitation as the core independent variable. Also, an empirical analysis was carried out using a mixed regression model. The results show that the three proxy indicators of trade facilitation had a significantly positive impact on the scale of China’s agricultural exports to the ASEAN market. The results could play a guiding role in strengthening the cooperation between China and the ASEAN regarding trade facilitation and expansion of the scale of agricultural trade.

Agricultural foreign trade held a leading position in Russia's foreign trade during several periods of its development. Agricultural raw materials and food constituted the backbone of Russia's exports in the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, as well as in the 1920s during the existence of the USSR. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR was the world's largest importer of grain. Today, Russia is the largest exporter of wheat. There are a significant number of studies dedicated to the agricultural foreign trade of Russia. However, there are practically no works devoted to the examination of the processes of dynamic and structural changes in the agricultural foreign trade of the country over an extended period as a unified whole. In this regard, the subject of the research in the article is the processes of dynamic and structural changes in the agricultural exports and imports of Russia, the USSR, and the countries of the "post-Soviet space" for the period 1802–2021. The statistical database containing data on the physical volumes of agricultural product imports and exports was created using methods of source study and statistical analysis. In analyzing the created sample, the method of tabular statistical groupings and graphical representation of data was used. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that: based on a substantial body of sources, statistical series were created containing data on the physical volumes of exports and imports of major types of agricultural products – grains, meat, milk, eggs, and products derived from them (after converting the latter into primary products according to official coefficients) over a long period (1802–2021); the processing of this statistical database involved converting the created statistical series of these products to a unified unit of measurement – conditional grain units based on official conversion coefficients, which had been done for trade research for the first time; in analyzing the resulting overall statistical series of exports and imports of the aforementioned products expressed in conditional grain units, a certain rhythm of agricultural foreign trade was identified – three long waves (periods) with varying characteristics lasting 40-50 years each were revealed. The beginning of each wave coincides with the onset of the downward phase of the "long cycle of conjuncture" by N.D. Kondratiev. Since 2009, the current fourth wave has begun.

With the maturity of modern science and technology, such as networks and computers, Internet of Things has been widely used in various fields of industry, opening up a new situation for the development of the industry and creating a broader development platform. This paper systematically analyzes the characteristics and changes of the commodity structure, regional structure, market structure, and main structure of export management of agricultural products. The proposed algorithm uses computer technology, network technology, and remote communication technology, electronic, digital, and network—the entire business process of business. The empirical analysis shows that the structure of agricultural product export trade reflects the endowment and comparative advantage of agricultural resources in China. The proposed blockchain technology supports and guides agricultural export enterprises to develop their own brands, strengthen the quality and safety management of agricultural products, and innovate and expand the policy support system for optimizing the structure of agricultural product export trade. By optimizing the export mode of agricultural trade, we can achieve the purpose of increasing the export volume of agricultural products and the total value of trade exports. The experimental results show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, which can greatly improve the volume of trade exports and the total value of trade exports.

This chapter addresses questions related to the economic behavior of China’s agricultural trade. Specifically, have China’s agricultural imports and exports simply resulted from the domestic short-term shortages or surpluses of various agricultural products? Or has China engaged in agricultural trade according to its comparative advantages in agricultural production as reflected by the differences between domestic and world prices of its agricultural products? To what extent is China’s agricultural sector responding to the world market situation of agricultural commodities? To answer these questions, it is essential to analyze the factors affecting China’s agricultural exports and imports.