Agriculture and Economic Development

This book describes the interactions between agriculture and economic development in developing countries. The authors first consider the different structure and organization of agriculture in developed and developing countries and some features of traditional agriculture and peasant farmer behavior. Agriculture provides the economy with food and raw materials. A growing agricultural sector produces a growing economy a labor force for industry and a source of capital for investment elsewhere. The authors examine the interchangeabilty of products land and labor surpluses as well as different systems of land tenure; they also critically evaluate dual economy models and the role of surplus agricultural labor. The issue of efficiency in agricultural resource use is examined in the contexts of poverty risk uncertainty and farm size. Modern agricultural technology is analyzed in terms of its impact and barriers to its adoption. The authors examine the effects of incentives and prices on production. Institutional constraints to agricultural development--such as land ownership--are discussed. Sensible pricing policies and restructuring agricultural markets are recommended for developing economies. The authors also analyze the relationship between population size and food supply and agricultures place in international trade. Finally micro and macro planning for agriculture are considered including the merits of the Soviet "tribute" model and the Chinese model; input-output analysis for agricultural planning; and cost-benefit analysis for project evaluation. (authors modified)

The complex interrelationships of price policy and income distribution are analyzed, beginning with the simple effects of changes in food prices as they are reflected in consumer-budget data and consumption patterns and the effects on producers of different income levels. The analysis progresses to a more complex study of the effect on agricultural technology and production and on employment in non-agricultural areas. The impact is shown to be greatest on low-income groups, whose economic condition also has the greatest impact on food demand. Secondary impacts on employment and income of low-income groups also result from changes in the real income of high-income consumers as prices change. On the basis of this analysis, the author suggests food-pricing policies that will encourage technological change in agriculture and employment growth in industry.

The Three Gorges Reservoir Area is a key control region of eco-environmental construction in China. However, how to achieve agro-economic development and control agricultural non-point source pollution in the region have emerged as difficult issues in recent years. To verify the coupling process of agricultural eco-economic system under emission mitigation and sink enhancement, data from the Zhong County(a typical non-point source pollution control district in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area) was used to develop eco-agriculture and non-point source pollution control. Then an equation-driven model of the construction structure was studied in terms of the interrelationship and interaction paths of the various elements of agricultural resources, agricultural development and agricultrual eco-economic coupling system in the Three Gorges Reservoir Aarea of Zhong County under the backdrop of emission mitigation and sink enhancement of non-point source pollution policies and measures. The paper put forward 6 basic assumptions based on 4 latent variables(emission mitigation and sink enhancement of non-point source pollution policies and measures, agricultural resources, agricultural development and coupling degree of agricultural eco-economic system) and the corresponding observation variables. Based on these elements, the paper designed a coupling model of the agricultural eco-economic system. The empirical results revealed that the path coefficient of the interrelationship between agricultural non-point source pollution control measures and agricultural resources utilization was 0.79. This suggested that the government's emission mitigation and sink enhancement measures promoted rational utilization of agricultural resources in the region. The path coefficient of the interactive relationship between emission mitigation and sink enhancement measures of agricultrual non-point source pollution and agricultural development was 0.80. This also suggested that the measures and policies were strong incentive for agricultural development in the study area. The path coefficient of the relationship between agricultural development and resources utilization was 0.77, indicating that agro-economic development in the region was based on reasonable agricultural resources utilization. Emission mitigation and sink enhancement measures positively influenced the coupling process of agricultural eco-economic system. The path coefficient was 0.85, which suggested that the measures in the study area significantly improved the coupling process. The utilization of agricultural resources and development positively influenced the process of agricultural eco-economic system coupling. The respective path coefficients were 0.91 and 0.89, indicating that the coupling process of agro-industry and agro-resources system conformed to the nature of agricultural development. Considering the structural relationship between the latent variables, it was noted that under background of non-point source pollution emmission mitigation and sink enhancement measures, agriculturla resources and economic development were the key elements of system coupling. The elements formed an effective perspective for understanding the coupling process of the system.

Contents, Introduction, Pedro Lains and Vicente Pinilla, PART I - The Context, Chapter 1. Conceptual issues for the comparative study of agricultural development, Alan Olmstead and Paul Rhode, Chapter 2. Europe and the international trade in agricultural and food products, 1870-2000, Gema Aparicio, Vicente Pinilla and Raul Serrano, Chapter 3. Agriculture and structural change: lessons from the UK experience in an international context, Steve Broadberry, PART II - Country Studies, Chapter 4. Technological change, institutional development and economic growth in Dutch agriculture, 1870-1939, Jan-Pieter Smits, Chapter 5. The contribution of agriculture to economic growth in Denmark, 1870-1939, Ingrid Henriksen, Chapter 6. Swedish agriculture in economic development, 1870-1939, Lennart Schon. Chapter 7. Agriculture and economic development in Germany, 1870-1939, Oliver Grant, Chapter 8. Agriculture and economic development in France, 1870-1939, Nadine Vivier, Chapter 9, Agriculture and economic development in Italy, 1870-1939, Giovanni Federico, Chapter 10. Local comparative advantage: agriculture and economic development in Poland, 1870-1970, Nikolaus Wolf, Chapter 11. Agricultural development and impeded growth: the case of Hungary 1870-1973, Michael Kopsidis, Chapter 12. The contribution of agriculture to Spanish economic development, 1870-1973, Ernesto Clar and Vicente Pinilla, Chapter 13. Agriculture, institutional change and economic development in Portugal, 1870-1973, Pedro Lains, Chapter 14. Agriculture and economic development in Greece, 1870-1973, Socrates Petmezas, Chapter 15. Agriculture and economic development in Turkey, 1870-2000, Sevket Pamuk

PLANNING for agricultural development usually places primary emphasis on an efficient allocation of resources. Programming models have been used extensively for this purpose in recent years [2, 9, 11, 13]. However, for many developing countries with export oriented agricultures, the problem of agricultural policy formulation is further complicated by uncertain foreign demand. In these cases, policy makers must take into account both international demand factors, such as trade restrictions and block trading agreements, and domestic factors affecting internal resource allocation such as technological innovation and structural changes which may alter relative production costs and supply possibilities. This paper illustrates the use of a programming model as a tool for the evaluation of price policies t necessary to meet alternative hypothesized foreign demand situations for Argentina. The measurement of the resultant interrelated side effects of these policies is also presented. The inclusion of international factors in the analysis is particularly relevant for Argentina given that (1) balance of payments restrictions have been shown to be a major bottleneck to growth [4, 5]; and (2) recent developments in traditional Argentine markets, such as the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the incomplete implementation of the Latin American Common Market, have raised important questions regarding alternative export strategies. If the agricultural producers are reasonably responsive to relative product prices as recent evidence suggests [4, 13, 14], general price policies may be one of the simplest and most effective tools at the disposal of government to manage production to meet expected domestic and foreign demands. But it also must be recognized that price policies have other wide and varied impacts on an agriculturally oriented export economy. Among these are the impact on farm incomes and resource use in agriculture, foreign exchange earnings and government export revenues, consumer prices and agriculture's contribution to national growth. Given these multiple effects, the policy maker is forced to examine trade-offs between the potentially undesirable as well as desirable effects of an agricultural price policy. The approach contained here gives some insights into the trade-off process. Specifically, vectors of demand quantities, representing alternative export strategies in 1975, are introduced into a spatial equilibrium programming model as quantity restraints. The r sults of the analysis are then used to investigate the following series of related questions: (1) What constellation of product prices (minimum price guarantees) would be necessary to induce an efficiently organized Argentine agriculture to produce the alternative quantities once possible technological innovations have been accounted for? (2) How much land would be required for these levels of production? (3) What would be the labor requirements for each strategy? (4) How would each strategy affect consumer food costs? (5) How would each strategy affect agriculture's contribution to national product? (6) What would be the effects on governmental export earnings? Section I of this paper describes the method of analysis and the model used. Section II presents the alternative output specifications. Section III discusses prices required to meet specified demand levels while section IV describes the resulting impact on the agricultural sector with respect to farm incomes, land use, and labor requirements, and the indirect impacts on consumer welfare, net real aggregate value of production, and government export revenues and earnings. Section V draws some tentative conclusions. The major objective of this article is to demonstrate the usefulness of this type of analytical method for the analysis * Research upon which this article is based was supported by the Agricultural Development Council and the University of California. It appeared as Giannini Foundation Research Paper No. 305. 'The use of programming analysis for output price determination has been largely restricted to the United States [9, 101.

The agriculture sector is the backbone of the economies of many Asian countries such as India, China, and Bangladesh. The agriculture sector can contribute a major share to the GDP of such countries where the main occupation of the citizens is agriculture or the dependency of the citizens is mainly on the agricultural productivity. It is important to study the potential areas of agricultural economic resource development. The existing methods are not efficient enough to map the potential areas of agricultural productivity with economic resource development, and hence, it has motivated us to study the aspects which impact the economic resource development based on agricultural productivity. There are numerous factors such as low productivity, high irrigation amount, high labor charges, low proportion of planning optimization, and low crop yield that should be considered to study the correlation between economic development and agricultural productivity. Firstly, the spatial relationship of potential areas of agricultural economic resources development is analyzed in this paper. Secondly, the multiobjective linear programming model is proposed. Based on this multiobjective model, the optimal matching model for potential areas of agricultural economic resource development is constructed, and the improved genetic algorithm is used to solve the model to realize the optimal matching of potential areas of agricultural productivity and economic resource development. The experimental results show that the proposed method has high economic benefit, low irrigation amount, and high proportion of planning optimization with high crop yield.

Gaining Acceptance of Novel Plant Breeding Technologies.

토지제도 특성이 농업 생산에 미치는 영향 비교: 에티오피아와 말라위를 중심으로(Land Tenure Security, Institution and Agricultural Production: Evidence from Ethiopia and Malawi)

Investment in R & D in the agricultural sector is one of the means to propel the growth of the sector, but failure to ensure the efficient use of resources allocated to agricultural R & D would lead to wastage and underproduction. Based on this, the paper seeks to look at the efficiency of investment in agricultural R& D in relation to the food production index in the West Africa sub-region. To achieve this objective, the number of full-time researchers and spending in terms of percentage of the share of agriculture to GDP were treated as inputs and the food production index as an output (agriculture output). The study used panel data from 2009 to 2014. The Malmquist index approach was adopted to measure the efficiency of food production in selected West African countries. The mean Malmquist index of 0.991, 1.032, 0.976, 0.995, 1.051, 0.908, 0.966, and 0.961 for Ghana, Benin, Burkina-Faso, Ivory Coast, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo, respectively, were recorded. Benin and Niger experienced growth in food production within the period. The remaining countries, however, did not experience growth in food production as their respective means were less than 1 (Mi <1), which was an indication of inefficiencies in the application of investments committed to agricultural R & D. To help identify the role played by various components, technical efficiency change and technological progress change for the respective countries were also calculated. The results of the study show the need to go beyond mere allocation of resources to the agricultural sector and push towards efficient use of resources. The allocation of resources without measures to ensure their proper use would not yield the desired outcome. Various countries exhibited some levels of inefficiency across the dimensions assessed. This, therefore, calls for close attention to the use of agricultural resources. There is a need to ensure efficient use of resources committed to agricultural research and development across respective countries. Measures should be put in place to reduce wastage and redundancy in the allocation of resources for agricultural research and development, to improve efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector.

The importance of solving the problem of efficient use of resources in agriculture is shown. The trends of growth of agricultural production in the context of changes in the structure of resource consumption in the industry are highlighted. The characteristics of the use of various types of resources in agricultural production and the main directions of increasing their efficiency, which are based on the digital transformation of production, are presented. The influence of digitalization on the resource intensity of agricultural products is proven using the example of Udmurtia. The problems of innovative development of agriculture are highlighted and the main directions for their solution are shown.

The subject of scientific research is the theoretical and practical principles of the formation and effective use of human resources in the agriculture of Ukraine. The purpose of the article is to substantiate the strategic directions of the use of human resources in agriculture. The data of the State Statistics Service of Ukraine, the results of other scientists' research and own developments were used. The following methods of scientific research are applied: abstract-logical; monographic; statistical and economic; balance; systematic approach, etc. A generalized definition of human resources is proposed as a set of active population characterized by socio-demographic, professional qualification, psychophysiological characteristics and participating in social and labor relations in enterprises (organizations, institutions) on the basis of employment and/or self-employment (entrepreneurs, owners of capital, employers), actively looking for work (unemployed), starting their own business. Based on the analysis of the formation and use of human resources in agriculture in the pre-war period and taking into account the current war situation in the country, the pessimistic trends of demographic indicators and economic activity of the rural population were determined as the basis for the formation of human resources in agricultural enterprises. Taking this into account and the recorded high level of informal employment in agriculture, a methodical approach to determining the forecasted indicators of the need to create jobs in the agricultural sector to ensure the effective use of availablehuman resources in rural areas is substantiated. Taking into account the excess of the supply of labor on the labor market in agriculture over its demand, the positive dynamics of the development of small forms of business in the industry, the unfilled potential capacity of the domestic market of labor-intensive agro-food products, in Ukraine, the perspective of comprehensive support for the development of small and medium-sized enterprises in the agricultural sector of the economy has been proven. on the part of the state, territorial communities, etc. It was determined that the effective use of human resources in agriculture in wartime and postwar times will be ensured by achieving the following economic effects: increasing the level of formal employment and labor income of the rural population, filling the domestic market with labor-intensive products, ensuring food security for households and the country. On the basis of the conducted SWOT-analysis of the development of labor-intensive production of products in small agribusiness, a strategic choice matrix for the use of human resources in agriculture was developed. This will contribute to the developm of related sectors of the economy: logistics and processing, trade, machine-building enterprises and will require additional recruitment of personnel – a multiplier effect. Key words: human resources, agriculture, employment, unemployment, agricultural enterprise, economic effect.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the hypothesis that a common basis for rapid growth in agricultural output and productivity lies in a remarkable adaptation of agricultural technology to the sharply contrasting factor proportions in the two countries. It is hypothesized that an important aspect of this adaptation was the ability to generate a continuous sequence of induced innovations in agricultural technology biased towards saving the limiting factors. In Japan these innovations were primarily biological and chemical. In the United States they were primarily mechanical.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine differences in property institutions in the USA and India and their effects on agricultural productivity.Design/methodology/approachThis paper undertakes a case study of industrial organization of agriculture, comparing agricultural development in the USA and India, with a focus on changes in farm size over time.FindingsIn the USA, unlimited individual land ownership has enabled the gradual, long-term development of scale economies in agriculture through the application of capital and technology. In contrast, land reforms in India, especially land ceilings that limit farm size, have stunted productivity growth in agriculture by limiting achievement of scale economies and capital formation.Practical implicationsThe finding that India’s consistently meager agricultural productivity stems largely from legal limitations on land ownership indicates that reforms that create a US-style open-ended land ownership structure would greatly increase farm productivity and total crop output in India.Originality/valueThis paper presents a side-by-side analysis of the USA and India and their radically different paths of agricultural development over time, and connects these divergent outcomes directly to the underlying institutional framework of property rights. Moreover, the paper analyzes the prospects for pro-market reform in light of public choice political economy, specifically applying Tullock’s insights regarding the “transitional gains trap.”

[Purpose] The development of agriculture and animal husbandry in Tibet is basically based on the interlaced development of agriculture and animal husbandry in mountainous areas. The interlaced agricultural and animal husbandry areas in mountainous areas are the unity of special, harmonious and harmonious regional small environment. The special attributes of mountainous areas determine the rich agricultural and animal husbandry resources, ecological development cycle areas, characteristic agricultural products areas and tourism. The division and regionalization of recreational zones and the optimal combination and utilization of agricultural and animal husbandry resources in mountainous ecotone have very important effects on promoting the benign cycle of regional agricultural and animal husbandry economic development, the development of urban integration and the protection of industrial ecological environment. How to develop and construct a new type of "environment-friendly and resource-saving" agricultural and animal husbandry areas is very important. It is of great practical significance to promote the development of regional agriculture and animal husbandry industry, to establish an efficient production system of agriculture and animal husbandry and to speed up the increase of farmers' and herdsmen's income. Rational and effective utilization of various beneficial resources can effectively solve the problems of material shortage, resource shortage and contradiction between supply and demand, and ensure the interlaced agriculture and animal husbandry economy in Tibet's mountainous areas. Sustainable development. [Method]On the basis of domestic and foreign literatures, this paper analyses and evaluates in detail the optimal combination and utilization mode of agricultural and animal husbandry resources in mountainous ecotone area by means of management induction, [Result]that is, the modern high-efficiency utilization mode of new energy, the green integration development mode of "chain fusion" in seed and culture, and the multi-level agricultural capital. Four basic modes, i.e. the mode of efficient utilization of resources and the mode of recreational sightseeing and sightseeing in mountainous agriculture and animal husbandry. [Conclusion] The above four modes of optimal combination and utilization of agricultural and animal husbandry resources are the basic macro-combination modes of agricultural and animal husbandry resources in the mountainous ecotone of Tibet. They are discussed in detail from the perspectives of natural resources utilization, agricultural products production and processing, agricultural and animal husbandry production and construction, and eco-tourism development in order to provide better services. Development and construction of agricultural and animal husbandry circular economy in Tibet. Finally, according to the characteristics of Tibet's own development, this paper puts forward to promote the integration of scientific concepts, the strength of scientific and technological support, and the fund guarantee system in the basic fields, and to strengthen the integration of farmer-herdsman cooperatives and market organizations in practical application. Reference and extension of the model, incentive and compensation security system, etc., for the future development of mountain-type interlaced agriculture and animal husbandry in Tibet circular agricultural and animal husbandry and resource optimization and combination of construction to provide a reference and research results.

Efficient use of energy resources in agriculture is one of the pre-requisites for sustainable agricultural production. Energy intensive paddy cultivation is blamed for several ecological problems of the Indian Punjab. In this backdrop, the present study was carried out to measure the energy use pattern in paddy cultivation across different farm categories along with identification of wasteful uses and calculation of energy use efficiency (EUE) in Punjab during 2018-19. The total energy expended in paddy cultivation was 47014.69 MJ/ha and the average energy use showed an inverse relationship with the farm size. Among different energy sources, chemical fertilizers were the dominant ones (42%) followed by electricity consumption for irrigation (36.05%), machine energy (18%), diesel fuel (17%), human labour (1.36%) and FYM (1.11%).The use of chemical, mechanical and electrical energy varied positively with the farm size while it varied negatively for human and animal labour, seed and FYM. Net energy gain was estimated at 0.175 million MJ/ha. High EI of 6.77 MJ/Kg with a low energy productivity index of 0.148 kg/MJ indicated that there is room for improving energy productivity. The EUE for small farmers (4.98) was the highest. Very high use of NRE and commercial energy was observed which could be harmful to the environment and ecology in the long run.