Agriculture and Biodiversity (Summary in German)

Biodiversity in Bangladesh is deteriorating gradually due to many anthropogenic activities. Agricultural practices along with modern farming techniques causing depletion of biodiversity. The study was conducted to determine the impacts of agricultural practices on biodiversity in the study area. Cultivable land increase only 1% but total cultivable land came under irrigation. Cropping in wetland area got popular and increase 95% in term of land area. As water level goes down, digging pond in wetland area became a trend recently. Simultaneously, the use of submersible water pumps gaining popularity. Agricultural practices shift dramatically from inorganic fertilizer to organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer. The numbers of pesticides use reached three folds. On the other hand, floral and faunal species is losing its diversity in the study area. Total, 29% fruit plants, 38% timber plant and 42% medicinal plant species extinct. In case of fauna, 33% wild animal, 26% birds and 46% fish species extinct form the study area. People perception mentioned cultivation land used pattern, use of chemical fertilizer, pesticide etc. irrigation, cultivating hybrid, HYV and exotic plant, use of modern agriculture technology, habitat destruction, infrastructural development, urbanization etc. as the causes of loss of biodiversity. But, in this study finds most of the biodiversity caused by anthropogenic activities. Farmers of the study area have no training of any kinds of fertilizer using but they admit that conserving biodiversity is important. Anthropogenic agricultural effects on biodiversity are a field needs further research, particularly about the conditions where native and diverse species may sustain and flourish.

Sustainability and traceability in marine cultured pearl production

Developing spatial prioritisation strategies to maximise conservation impact

Stratégies villageoises pour la gestion des paysages forestiers du Menabe Central, Madagascar

Preface, vii Foreword, ix Contributors, x INTRODUCTION, 1 1 Biodiversity and insect pests, 3 Geoff M. Gurr, Steve D. Wratten and William E. Snyder FUNDAMENTALS, 21 2 The ecology of biodiversity biocontrol relationships, 23 William E. Snyder and Jason M. Tylianakis 3 The role of generalist predators in terrestrial food webs: lessons for agricultural pest management, 41 K.D. Welch, R.S. Pfannenstiel and J.D. Harwood 4 Ecological economics of biodiversity use for pest management, 57 Mark Gillespie and Steve D. Wratten 5 Soil fertility, biodiversity and pest management, 72 Miguel A. Altieri, Luigi Ponti and Clara I. Nicholls 6 Plant biodiversity as a resource for natural products for insect pest management, 85 Opender Koul 7 The ecology and utility of local and landscape scale effects in pest management, 106 Sagrario Gamez-Virues, Mattias Jonsson and Barbara Ekbom METHODS, 121 8 Scale effects in biodiversity and biological control: methods and statistical analysis, 123 Christoph Scherber, Blas Lavandero, Katrin M. Meyer, David Perovic, Ute Visser, Kerstin Wiegand and Teja Tscharntke 9 Pick and mix: selecting flowering plants to meet the requirements of target biological control insects, 139 Felix L. Wackers and Paul C.J. van Rijn 10 The molecular revolution: using polymerase chain reaction based methods to explore the role of predators in terrestrial food webs, 166 William O.C. Symondson 11 Employing chemical ecology to understand and exploit biodiversity for pest management, 185 David G. James, Sofia Orre-Gordon, Olivia L. Reynolds (nee Kvedaras) and Marja Simpson APPLICATION, 197 12 Using decision theory and sociological tools to facilitate adoption of biodiversity-based pest management strategies, 199 M.M. Escalada and K.L. Heong 13 Ecological engineering strategies to manage insect pests in rice, 214 Geoff M. Gurr, K.L. Heong, J.A. Cheng and J. Catindig 14 China's 'Green Plant Protection' initiative: coordinated promotion of biodiversity-related technologies, 230 Lu Zhongxian, Yang Yajun, Yang Puyun and Zhao Zhonghua 15 Diversity and defence: plant herbivore interactions at multiple scales and trophic levels, 241 Finbarr G. Horgan 16 'Push pull' revisited: the process of successful deployment of a chemical ecology based pest management tool, 259 Zeyaur R. Khan, Charles A.O. Midega, Jimmy Pittchar, Toby J.A. Bruce and John A. Pickett 17 Using native plant species to diversify agriculture, 276 Douglas A. Landis, Mary M. Gardiner and Jean Tompkins 18 Using biodiversity for pest suppression in urban landscapes, 293 Paula M. Shrewsbury and Simon R. Leather 19 Cover crops and related methods for enhancing agricultural biodiversity and conservation biocontrol: successful case studies, 309 P.G. Tillman, H.A. Smith and J.M. Holland SYNTHESIS, 329 20 Conclusion: biodiversity as an asset rather than a burden, 331 Geoff M. Gurr, William E. Snyder, Steve D. Wratten and Donna M.Y. Read Index, 340 Colour plates fall between pages 84 and 85

شاخص‏های تنوع زیستی ابزاری نیرومند برای ارزیابی پایداری نظام های کشاورزی محسوب می شوند. در این تحقیق که به منظور ارزیابی تنوع زیستی محصولات زراعی و باغی شهرستان های استان اصفهان و همچنین بررسی روابط موجود بین تنوع زیستی و عوامل اقلیمی ‏این استان صورت گرفت، سطح زیر کشت، غنای گونه ای، یکنواختی، تنوع گونه ای و تنوع آلفا و بتای محصولات زراعی و باغی محاسبه شده و مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفتند. بدین منظور، اطلاعات مربوط به سطح زیر کشت گیاهان زراعی و باغی شهرستان‏های مختلف استان اصفهان در سال زراعی 92-1391 از طریق اطلاعات سازمان جهاد کشاورزی استان و همچنین پرسشنامه‏هایی جمع‏آوری گردید. محصولات زراعی به هشت گروه غلات، حبوبات، جالیزی، سبزیجات، علوفه ای، صنعتی و دارویی و محصولات باغی به دو گروه درختان میوه معتدله و گرمسیری طبقه بندی شدند. تنوع آلفا و بتا نیز با استفاده از رابطه غنای گونه‏ای مساحت برای اقلیم‏های مختلف استان محاسبه شد. نتایج نشان داد که در گروه محصولات باغی، درختان میوه معتدله (2/76 درصد) بیشترین و در گروه محصولات زراعی غلات (36/59 درصد) و گیاهان دارویی (09/1 درصد) به ترتیب بیشترین و کمترین سطح زیر کشت را دارا هستند. شهرستان های سمیرم و برخوار و میمه به ترتیب بیشترین و کمترین سطح زیر کشت محصولات باغی را به خود اختصاص دادند. بیشترین سطح زیر کشت محصولات زراعی در شهرستان اصفهان و کمترین آن در شهرستان خوروبیابانک مشاهده شد. شهرستان-های کاشان، لنجان، و نطنز با 17 گونه گیاهی، بیشترین و آران و بیدگل با سه گونه گیاهی کمترین غنای گونه ای محصولات باغی استان را در برداشتند. بیشترین و کمترین شاخص یکنواختی محصولات باغی به ترتیب مربوط به شهرستان های اصفهان (83/0) و سمیرم (192/0) بود. شهرستان های فلاورجان، خمینی شهر، کاشان، نایین و نجف آباد دارای بیشترین شاخص یکنواختی در محصولات زراعی و شهرستان اصفهان کمترین میزان این شاخص را نشان داد. به طور میانگین بیشترین و کمترین شاخص تنوع زیستی شانون- وینر در محصولات زراعی به ترتیب مربوط به گیاهان علوفه ای (929/0) و جالیزی (442/0) بود. این شاخص برای درختان معتدله بیش از دو برابر درختان گرمسیری گزارش شد. بیشترین و کمترین میزان تنوع آلفا به ترتیب در شهرستان‏های واقع در اقلیم‏های معتدل و بیابانی گرم مشاهده شد. اقلیم بیابانی معتدل نیز بالاترین میزان تنوع بتا را شامل شد.

This thesis studies natural and anthropogenic determinants of grassland
\nbiodiversity in the Swiss Alps at the levels of plant communities within a landscape
\n(Chapter 2), species diversity within plant communities (Chapter 2 and 3), biological
\ninteractions between plants and herbivores and pathogens (Chapter 4), and diversity
\nwithin a species (Chapter 5-8). Within-species diversity is studied in the widespread and
\nagriculturally important grass species Poa alpina L.
\n
\nConclusion
\nWith our comprehensive study across 12 villages we could demonstrate that
\nhuman land use affects biodiversity at all levels and has largely shaped present
\nbiodiversity during the hundreds of years of agricultural activity. Additionally, we
\nshowed that cultural traditions still affect man-made landscape diversity. Still persisting
\nsocio-economic differences among cultural traditions are likely to be responsible for this
\ncultural effect.
\nThe reduction of labor for farmers by grazing of formerly unfertilized meadows or
\nabandonment of pastures and meadows will reduce land use diversity, and the number of
\nparcels of high biological value used at low intensity will decrease. Thus, biodiversity
\nwill decrease both between and within grassland parcels. Therefore, financial incentives
\nare needed to stop the ongoing changes in agriculture in order not to risk losses in
\nbiodiversity. Financial incentives should promote high biodiversity within parcels of
\nland, but as not all levels of biodiversity react in the same way a high landscape diversity
\nat the village level is also necessary.
\nUnfertilized meadows are the most laborious type of grassland, and therefore they
\nare most likely to get abandoned, especially when they are steep and at high altitudes and
\nthereby not easily accessible. Due to their significance for plant species richness and
\ncomposition, financial incentives for the conservation of these unfertilized meadows are
\nespecially important.
\nWe showed that, in contrast to widespread reservations against grazing,
\nparticularly low-intensity grazing has several positive aspects at all levels of biodiversity,
\nand from a biodiversity point of view, grazing is clearly preferable to abandonment of
\ngrasslands.
\nIn summary, to protect biodiversity at all levels of biological integration, a highly
\ndiverse landscape has to be promoted. Therefore, financial incentives should aim at high
\nland use diversity, which is likely to be most successfully promoted at the village level.
\nA reduced diversity of land use types or even abandonment of whole regions will
\nseverely reduce biodiversity. At the same time, landscape attractiveness for tourists will
\nbe reduced and the remnants of cultural heritage in the Swiss Alps will be endangered.
\nThe conservation of all levels of biodiversity and of their cultural, esthetical, ecological,
\nand economic value requires the persistence of the diverse landscapes of the Alps.

در این مقاله با توجه به نقش و اثرات فاجعه دریاچه ارومیه بر تغییرات ساختار و کارکرد بخش کشاورزی و تاب‌آوری نواحی روستایی در منطقه کرانه شرقی دریاچه مورد بررسی و تحلیل قرار گرفته است. روش پژوهش کمّی و ماهیت آن بهره‌گیری از روش تحلیلی-تجربی است. بدین منظور با استفاده از رویکردهای نوین در سنجش آسیب‌پذیری و توسعه آن متناسب با شرایط بومی مسئله مورد بررسی شاخص‌های سنجش آسیب‌پذیری با تلفیق سری‌های زمانی و تکنیک‌های تحلیل فضایی در سنجش از دور در سه بخش: در معرض خطر، حساسیت و ظرفیت سازگاری انتخاب گردید. نتایج پژوهش در مرحله اول منجر به شناسایی مهم‌ترین نیروی تأثیرگذار (نقش بحران دریاچه ارومیه) در ساختار و کارکرد بخش کشاورزی را گردید. علاوه براین تحلیل تغییرات کاربری اراضی و روند تغییرات تولیدات کشاورزی تأیید‌ ‌کننده تأثیرپذیری ساختار و کارکرد بخش کشاورزی ناشی از تغییرات دریاچه ارومیه است. درنهایت، نتایج حاصل از کاربست شاخص‌های سنجش از دور، ظرفیت سازگاری و قابلیت محیطی بخش کشاورزی را مشخص ساخت. نتایج این بخش بیان کننده ظرفیت پایین تاب‌آوری بخش کشاورزی در پهنه‌های عمده تولیدات کشاورزی و تهدید امنیت شغلی و زندگی ساکنان نواحی روستایی در منطقه کرانه شرقی است. ازاین‌رو، کاربرد نتایج پژوهش حاضر، ضرورت‌های تاب‌آوری و عمل‌گرا را در نظام برنامه‌ریزی محلی به‌ویژه برای بخش کشاورزی و جامعه روستایی فراهم خواهد آورد.

We need to move towards more sustainable farming methods that maximise yields whilst protecting the environment. One approach that would achieve this goal is ecological intensification, which seeks to manage the biodiversity and ecological processes underpinning agricultural production so that damaging farming practices can be replaced or reduced. Forb-rich arable field margins have been shown to benefit flower-visiting insects such as wild bees, and recent evidence suggests that they can also enhance the levels of pollination and pest control in adjacent crop fields. They may also promote a suite of additional ecosystem services of societal and agronomic importance, but this has yet to be established. Furthermore, the ability of forb-rich field margins to deliver multiple benefits (i.e. ecosystem multifunctionality), including pest control and pollination, is likely to be contingent on a range of local and landscape factors. Using a range of pre-existing field margin plots (n = 98) distributed across 16 arable farms in central eastern England, this study first sought to examine whether high quality forb-rich field margins promote ecosystem multifunctionality more effectively than low quality forb-poor field margins. This involved measuring a range ecosystem services within and adjacent to field margin plots, including pest control, pollination, soil carbon storage, flood alleviation, the abundance of invertebrate ecosystem service providers and the amount of invertebrate biodiversity. Secondly, it established whether arable field margins provide adequate foraging resources for flower-visiting insects. And thirdly, it determined the local and landscape factors (including margin quality) that best promote ecosystem service provision and invertebrate biodiversity within agro-ecosystems. The findings indicated that quality was the most important determinant of ecosystem multifunctionality within arable field margins, as high quality margins supported significantly greater levels of pest control, pollination, flood alleviation and invertebrate biodiversity. However, a range of additional local and landscape management prescriptions further enhanced the multifunctionality of arable field margins, such as the level of vehicle traffic margins receive, vegetation height, landscape complexity and the amount of floral resources provided by the adjacent hedgerow. Despite the multiple benefits of high quality field margins, they were also found to enhance invertebrate crop pests. This may reduce the willingness of farmers to adopt forb-rich habitats on their land. Finally, the present study highlights that more consideration should be given to the forb species included within field margin seed mixes, as certain species were found to promote agronomically damaging crop pests, whereas other species not currently included in field margin seed mixes were extremely attractive to several important flower-visiting taxa or flowered during spring; a period in which field margins are floristically poor. This thesis clearly demonstrates that forb-rich field margins provide multiple agronomic, societal and biodiversity benefits, and outlines the important drivers of ecosystem multifunctionality. As such, it provides farmers and landowners with a clear set of management guidelines for promoting biodiversity and ecosystem services within arable field margins.

There is a lively debate on whether biodiversity conservation and agricultural production could be better reconciled by land sparing (strictly separating production fields and conservation areas) or by land sharing (combining both, agricultural production and biodiversity conservation on the same land). The debate originates from tropical countries, where agricultural land use continues to increase at the expense of natural ecosystems. But is it also relevant for Europe, where agriculture is withdrawing from marginal regions whilst farming of fertile lands continues to be intensified? Based on recent research on farmland biodiversity we conclude that the land sharing – land sparing dichotomy is too simplistic for Europe. Instead we differentiate between productive and marginal farmland. On productive farmland, semi-natural habitats are required to yield ecosystem services relevant for agriculture, to promote endangered farmland species which society wants to conserve even in intensively farmed regions, and to allow migration of non-farmland species through the agricultural matrix. On marginal farmland, high-nature value farming is a traditional way of land sharing, yielding high quality agricultural products and conserving specialized species. To conserve highly disturbance-sensitive species, there is a need for nature reserves. In conclusion, land sparing is not a viable olution for Europe in both productive and marginal farmland but because of different reasons in each type of farmland.

Modern intensive agricultural practices characteristic of Western Europe and North America, such as high usage of agro-chemicals, are cited as key drivers of biodiversity declines. Declines in biodiversity are likely to impact on a number of natural processes termed ‘ecosystem services’, which include pollination and pest control that play an important role in agricultural production. Because of the negative effects of intensive agricultural practices, there has been a search for alternative systems of production. One approach is ecological intensification, where ecosystem services are maximised in agriculture as a way to offset anthropogenic inputs that can damage the wider environment. Key to the success of ecological intensification is gaining a mechanistic understanding of how biodiversity supports the functioning of ecosystem services, so management can be targeted to maximise service delivery. In order to ensure that food production is sustainable in the face of constantly changing environments it is also important to understand how biodiversity responds to stressors, such as insecticide use. This thesis focuses on using invertebrate species morphological and behavioural characteristics—referred to collectively as traits—to gain a mechanistic understanding of how different components of biodiversity support the functioning and resilience of pollination and pest control ecosystem services. Results highlight that trait approaches provide higher accuracy in predicting the functioning and resilience of natural pest control and pollination, than measures such as species richness. I also highlight that common environmental stressors such as insecticides and extreme heat have the potential to limit pest control and pollination ecosystem services, respectively. My results broadly demonstrate that utilising invertebrate species behavioural and morphological traits are beneficial in understanding the mechanisms driving pollination and pest control ecosystem services.

Biodiversity is the basis for agriculture and for a sustainable future. More than 1.9 million living species have been described; millions more have gone extinct, including major branches of the tree of life. The distribution of this biological diversity is variable in space and time, although it is becoming more homogeneous as a result of globalisation. Only a few hundred species of plants and animals have been domesticated over the past 10 000 years, yet they are essential for the livelihoods of people worldwide. New tools are giving us insights into the origins of agriculture, as well as opening new possibilities for using and changing the genetic diversity of these crops and races. This can have a major impact on the wellbeing of present and future generations. Agriculture is also having major impacts on natural ecosystems. An estimated 25% of terrestrial ecosystems have been transformed into production systems, mostly in the past 50 years. Habitat loss and fragmentation, pollution and invasions are some of the impacts. Climate change is likely to have additional impacts that will alter the distribution and abundance of biodiversity, as well as the interactions among species. It is time to bring together knowledge from biodiversity science and agriculture through a whole-system approach. A better understanding of the diversity, distribution, evolution and ecology of life is essential for a sustainable future. It can also open new avenues for agriculture and food security.

This study was conducted in Imburu Ward, Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria to assess the role of local communities in agricultural diversity conservation. Background characteristics of households showed that farmers above 50 years of age were the most dominant group involved in agricultural biodiversity conservation. These were mostly males who had no formal education. Results on main crops grown showed that vegetables were cultivated by almost every household (80%), followed by sorghum with 75%, while rice was the lowest with 10%. Information on crops and crop varieties grown showed that most households in the study area cultivated between 1 and 2 varieties, with few households cultivating less than 2 varieties. There is need to harness and utilise the synergy that exists between modern practices of improving agricultural biodiversity and local knowledge and skills so that food supply and resource base of rural communities are alleviated. Keywords: Conservation, Local knowledge, agriculture, biodiversity, crops, Nigeria

ارزیابی تنوع گیاهان کشاورزی و تاثیر گذاری فاکتورهای مدیریتی در منطقه شکار ممنوع قراویز چکیده تنوع زیستی پایه و اساس کشاورزی به شمار می رود. کشاورزی پایدار نیز به دنبال افزایش تنوع زیستی است. طی این مطالعه تنوع زیستی گیاهان کشاورزی و فاکتورهای مدیریتی در سه روستای منطقه شکارممنوع قراویز و چهار روستا در حاشیه ی این منطقه، در شهرستان سرپل ذهاب مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. اطلاعات موردنظر از طریق بازدید از مزارع و پرسشنامه های خاصی جمع آوری گردید. شاخص های غنای گونه ای، شانون-وینر و غالبیت سیمپسون محاسبه شد. نتایج این مطالعه نشان داد که، گونه های کشاورزی موجود در منطقه مورد مطالعه به هفت خانواده تعلق دارند که گرامینه، لگومینوز و سولاناسه بیشترین سهم را دارا می-باشند. گونه های گندم، ذرت در تمامی روستاهای موجود مورد کشت و کار قرار می گیرند. همبستگی بین نوع مزرعه با شاخص-های غنای گونه ای (**419/0)، شانون-وینر (**449/0) و غالبیت سیمپسون (**315/0-) معنی دار شده، به عبارتی آبی یا دیم بودن مزرعه بر روی شاخص های مذکور موثر بوده است. همبستگی نوع کود مصرفی با شاخص های غنای گونه ای (**413/0-)، شانون-وینر (**377/0-) و غالبیت سیمپسون (**296/0) نیز معنی دار گردید. هرچه گرایش به مصرف کودهای شیمیایی بیشتر شود میزان تنوع گونه های زراعی کاهش می یابد. همبستگی میزان مصرف کودهای آلی با شاخص غنای گونه ای (**452/0)، شانون-وینر (**419/0) و غالبیت سیمپسون (**338/0-) معنی دار بوده که با افزایش مصرف کودآلی، تنوع گونه های زراعی نیز افزایش می یابد. همچنین تاثیر فاکتورهای مقدار مصرف کودهای شیمیایی، آیش گذاری سالانه، مصرف بذر اصلاح شده، سموم شیمیایی و نهاده بیولوژیک بر روی شاخص های تنوع زیستی بی معنی گردیده است. واژه های کلیدی: شاخص های تنوع زیستی، نوع مزرعه، نوع کود مصرفی، کودآلی.

Over the last century, around half of all ponds and small wetlands have been lost globally, predominantly from agricultural regions. These losses present a major conservation challenge for aquatic biodiversity and habitat connectivity. While the creation of new ponds is widely advocated as a means of restoring some of these lost habitats, this thesis presents an alternative approach – the resurrection of ‘ghost ponds’, historic ponds in-filled during agricultural intensification. Many aquatic organisms have evolved dormant propagules for surviving periods of habitat desiccation, and can remain viable for centuries buried in wetland sediments. While such long-term viability is well established in extant aquatic habitats, the fate of propagules buried within ghost ponds has remained unexplored. If their viability was proven, ghost ponds could present a crucial overlooked conservation resource. Here, I examine the potential conservation value of ghost pond resurrection within a typical agricultural UK landscape. First, historic declines in pond numbers and pond density are examined for this landscape, and the potential implications of these changes for aquatic biodiversity are explored using a space-for-time replacement approach. The conservation value of ghost ponds is then explored through a series of lab and field studies, that demonstrate the viability of propagules representing at least eight aquatic macrophyte species, after laying dormant for 50 – 150 years. Once resurrected, ghost ponds were quickly (<6 months) re-colonised by a diverse aquatic vegetation. With ghost ponds representing abundant, dormant time capsules for aquatic species in agricultural landscapes, these findings open up exciting new possibilities for aquatic habitat and biodiversity restoration on a global scale.