Agricultural Practices and Sustainable Management in South Asia

The chapter introduces the book that highlights various challenges and opportunities for water management and cooperation in South Asia. Taking into consideration the increasing urbanization and development in the region and related pressure on water resources, the various chapters investigate water conflictual and cooperative attitudes and gestures between countries and regions, analyse management trade-offs between nature, agriculture and urban uses, and look into water sustainable management and related policies. The chapter highlights the increasing importance of South Asia, alerts for the constraining impacts of water scarcity, and indicates challenges for improved sustainable water management. The chapter concludes with synopses of each part of the book and of the chapters that compose them.

Despite the fact that sustainable agricultural technologies and practices have been developed and introduced to farmers in both developed and developing countries, there are concerns about low levels of adoption. Empirical evidence of the past 40 years shows that adoption of new practices can be hindered by a wide range of factors, from financial to attitudinal, from personal to social, from agronomic to regulatory. Conclusions that can be generalised across different contexts could help in moving the institutional and policy environment in a direction that strengthens the move towards a more sustainable food production. This is particularly important regarding hotspots of environmental pollution, for example, the release of reactive nitrogen compounds in South Asia. This paper followed the PRISMA protocol and systematically reviewed the adoption literature in South Asia to identify factors that affect farmers' decisions to adopt sustainable agricultural technologies and practices. We found that education, extension and training, soil quality, irrigation, income and credit are significant drivers of farmers' adoption decisions. Consequently, efforts to promote the adoption of sustainable nitrogen management technologies will have to be tailored to consider these factors. We conclude that the variables that explain adoption in the studies reviewed could provide a foundation invaluable to research and policies that facilitate the adoption of sustainable nitrogen management technologies and practices in South Asia.

Agricultural Practices and Sustainable Management in South Asia

Public management in South Asia has been influenced by the colonial past which has resulted in the domination of administrative systems by the bureaucrats. Bureaucracies remained firmly entrenched as powerful groups and performed both administrative and political functions. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka represent cases with similar backgrounds which opted for different political and economic systems after achieving independence. Consequently, a number of issues have emerged in public management in South Asia. These include debureaucratization of the policy process, complex relationship between specialists and generalists, integration of administrative structures, reconciliation of merit and equity, choice between professional and political patronage, revitalization of management, bridging the ever widening gap between the citizens and administrators, and the establishment of a sound ethical base of administration. The success of South Asian governments in dealing with these issues will determine, to a considerable extent, the dimensions and directions of change. While some of the issues will have to be addressed in the natural course of development, others will require a substantial degree of commitment from the governments as well as the societies.

Transboundary rivers are vital sources of freshwater globally, yet managing these shared waters poses significant challenges, including geopolitical tensions, unilateral water infrastructure development, and rising water demands. South Asia exemplifies these issues, with transboundary river treaties predominantly relying on quantitative/volumetric water-sharing frameworks for basin management and conflict resolution. This study critically examines key treaties, specifically the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) between India and Pakistan and the Ganga Water Treaty (GWT) between India and Bangladesh, highlighting their strengths, limitations, and post-treaty complexities through a quantitative water-sharing lens. The analysis shows that a narrow focus on ‘partitioning of river/flow’ (quantitative water-sharing) within these treaties frequently fails to address critical factors such as dry-season flow variability, climate-induced risks, ecological requirements, benefit-sharing opportunities and escalating water demands. These gaps contribute to mistrust, geopolitical tensions, and treaty unsustainability despite their relative success. The study underscores the need for a more comprehensive framework that integrates quantitative allocation with qualitative principles, including equitable and no-harm approaches to water-sharing and benefit-sharing. Lessons from the IWT and GWT offer valuable guidance for future negotiations on the Tista/Teesta River between India and Bangladesh, emphasizing cooperative, adaptive and resilient strategies for sustainably managing South Asia's critical transboundary water resources.

South Asia, with its burgeoning population density and poverty on the one hand, and rapid urbanization and industrialization on the other, seems to be facing an impending water crisis. This crisis is not due to water shortage, but due to conflicts over water use at various levels. The governments in the region have neglected the knowledge base needed to research water systems management and deal with these conflicts. The paper stresses that only a transdisciplinary approach, including the engineering and medical sciences, along with social, political, and economic expertise, can help in poverty alleviation and development. Eventually, the paper traces the knowledge gaps in water systems management in South Asia and sets forth a research agenda based on the emergent paradigm of integrated water resources management.

Energy management in South Asia

In 1947, British India-the part of South Asia that is today's India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh-emerged from the colonial era with the world's largest centrally managed canal irrigation infrastructure. However, as vividly illustrated by Tushaar Shah, the orderly irrigation economy that saved millions of rural poor from droughts and famines is now a vast atomistic system of widely dispersed tube-wells that are drawing groundwater without permits or hindrances. Taming the Anarchy is about the development of this chaos and the prospects to bring it under control. It is about both the massive benefit that the irrigation economy has created and the ill-fare it threatens through depleted aquifers and pollution. Tushaar Shah brings exceptional insight into a socio-ecological phenomenon that has befuddled scientists and policymakers alike. In systematic fashion, he investigates the forces behind the transformation of South Asian irrigation and considers its social, economic, and ecological impacts. He considers what is unique to South Asia and what is in common with other developing regions. He argues that, without effective governance, the resulting groundwater stress threatens the sustenance of the agrarian system and therefore the well being of the nearly one and a half billion people who live in South Asia. Yet, finding solutions is a formidable challenge. The way forward in the short run, Shah suggests, lies in indirect, adaptive strategies that change the conduct of water users. From antiquity until the 1960‘s, agricultural water management in South Asia was predominantly the affair of village communities and/or the state. Today, the region depends on irrigation from some 25 million individually owned groundwater wells. Tushaar Shah provides a fascinating economic, political, and cultural history of the development and use of technology that is also a history of a society in transition. His book provides powerful ideas and lessons for researchers, historians, and policy

This study presents the first assessment of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) sequences from multiple countries to evaluate the genetic diversity, phylogeographic relationships, population structure, and demographic history of wild Catla catla in South Asia. A total of 18 haplotypes, with moderate haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.599), low nucleotide diversity (π = 0.017), and limited mutational steps among most haplotypes, were identified after analyzing 133 COI sequences collected from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. The results revealed low genetic differentiation among all wild Catla samples, influenced by introgression from hatchery-reared fry and population bottlenecks. Phylogenetic analyses identified two distinct haplogroups for Pakistani populations, supporting the existence of divergent mitochondrial lineages. AMOVA test showed that most genetic variation occurred within populations (74.46.%) rather than among the seven river basin populations (25.54%). The high pairwise genetic distance (FST= 0.255), together with the presence of numerous population-specific haplotypes and low gene flow (Nm = 0.729), indicated significant population structure among these river populations. A positive Mantel test (r = 0.12) confirmed a significant increase in genetic divergence with increasing geographic distance. The neutrality test and mismatch distribution presented a contrasting demographic history. A significantly negative Fu’s Fs (Fu’s Fs = −24.431) pointed to recent population expansion, whereas a significant Harpending’s raggedness index (r = 0.009) and a multimodal mismatch distribution suggested long-term demographic substructure. These findings provide essential COI-based baseline genetic information for conserving the genetic integrity of the wild Catla catla and guiding sustainable transboundary fisheries management in South Asia.

Increasing threats related to climate change, water scarcity, and impacts of water diversion have the potential to trigger regional instability in various areas around the globe. This phenomenon is most evident in area surrounding the Brahmaputra River, an international watercourse flowing through China (Tibet), India, and Bangladesh. Contrary to other transboundary river basins in South Asia, the Brahmaputra seem so far to have been much under-examined, especially considering the complex geopolitics involved and potential threats to regional stability. The present chapter aims to review transboundary water management in South Asia with a detailed zoom on the case of the Brahmaputra river basin. This chapter analyses the social and environmental impacts of large-scale hydropower projects on downstream ecosystems and river-dependent populations. It also identifies relevant approaches to sustainable water management and explores major hindrances to effective cross-border cooperation between the countries involved. We aim to ask whether and how can water become a source of international cooperation and shared prosperity rather than a source of conflict.

Climate change is a critical factor affecting transboundary water management in South Asia, requiring robust agreements like the Koshi Agreement between India and Nepal. Signed in 1954 and amended in 1966, it serves as an initial model for regulating shared water resources. The agreement promotes equitable sharing of the Koshi River basin’s water, flood control measures and disaster risk management. Key provisions include forming the Koshi River Commission, frequent official meetings and sharing data to confirm balanced usage and mutual cooperation. It addresses the vulnerability of Koshi basin communities to floods and landslides through early warning systems, infrastructure and community preparedness interventions. The Koshi agreement has strengthened climate resilience by integrating renewable energy and hydropower projects, nurturing sustainable development and economic growth. These projects have diversified energy portfolios while maximizing disaster preparedness and minimizing impacts. Achievements include improved water quality and flood control with challenges such as sedimentation and equitable benefit sharing. The agreement highlights the potential of adaptive management and innovative frameworks for sustainable water resource management. Future research should prioritize developing institutional arrangements, engaging stakeholders effectively and incorporating climate change considerations to enhance regional cooperation and resilience.

From South Asia to the world: embracing the challenge of global sustainable nitrogen management

Agriculture in South Asia is largely dependent on rainfall, where about two-thirds of the cultivable lands lack irrigation facilities. In recent years, increasing frequency and severity of droughts have had a severe impact on rainfed agriculture and livelihood of millions of farmers in the region. There are numerous drought adaptation and mitigation options available for rainfed agriculture. A seed bank is one of those options that can play an important role in minimizing the effect of droughts on crop production. This paper assesses the need for seed banks in rainfed/partially irrigated areas of South Asia for the purpose of drought risk management. The need for additional seeds of the main crops or suitable alternative crops for re-sowing/planting after drought-induced losses of the main crop was assessed by using long-term gridded rainfall data and crop information. Results show that very limited rainfed areas in South Asia require additional seeds of main or alternative crops for drought risk management once in five to seven years’ drought return period. About 90 percent of such areas in South Asia may require additional seeds for drought risk management once in 10 years or more. The timing and severity of droughts during cropping season and cost/benefits of seed bank maintenance play a major role in choosing additional seeds for the main crops and/or alternate crops for maintenance in the large seed banks. This study shows that, despite the large investment requirement, maintenance of large seed banks for drought risks management is economically viable for the limited areas in South Asia.

Chapter 1 - Introduction

South Asia represents the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as Nepal and northern parts of India situated south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush. South Asia is bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean and on land by West Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. South Asia covers about 5.1 million km2, which is 11.51% of the Asian continent or 3.4% of the world’s land surface area. The region is home to about 39.5% of Asia’s population and over 24% of the world’s population, making it both the most populous and the most densely populated geographical region in the world. The important rivers of South Asia are Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. These rivers have contributed to the rise and prosperity of some of the earliest civilizations in history and today are the source of livelihood for millions. The South Asian river basins, most of which have their source in the Himalayas, support rich ecosystems and irrigate millions of hectares of fields, thereby supporting some of the highest population densities in the world.