Abstract
Advances in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) instrumentation and methodology have led to progress in the study of fragile organic, polymeric and biological systems. Basic XPS instrument performance is critical for achieving the energy resolution needed to distinguish the fine features more accurately. To clarify the issues in achieving high energy resolution with good signal-to-noise ratios, a strategy for comparing instrumentation is offered. Enhancements that further expand the possibilities for XPS in biology and medicine include studies of hydrated frozen specimens and chemical derivatization techniques.
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