Adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices and climate resilience in tea cultivation: micro-level evidence from Sri Lanka

There is a large and growing literature on the potential use of policy instruments for stimulating the adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices amongst smallholders. The objective of this article is to review and understand how the array of potential policy incentives can serve as mechanisms for enhancing adoption and upscaling of potential CSA practices by small-scale farmers in low-income countries. The review follows a matrix approach capturing where specific CSA practices (rows) are supported by typical policy instruments (columns) for enhancing widespread adoption. We first identify six key CSA practices, namely water management, soil and nutrient management, crop tolerance to stress, agroforestry and intercropping, crop rotation and mixed systems, and pest and disease management. Then we discuss the impact of those typical policy instruments, namely market prices, taxes and subsidies, land rights, rural finance, training and information, and certification and labeling. The review finds that most studies on this subject have a rather narrow focus on functional properties of a specific policy instrument and a particular CSA practice, thereby ignoring substitution, complementary or conditional effects between policy measures and CSA practices. Consequently, previous studies identify few incentives, particularly effective on their own. Wider perspectives on impact pathways point to the importance of sequencing and scaling for enhancing farmers' CSA adoption. We therefore advocate for more integrated approaches that also consider indirect effects of policy instruments on CSA adoption and pursue their systematic anchoring through successful policies that enhance widespread adoption.

The role of market interventions like certification in promoting climate action has received little attention in policy and academic circles. This study used a multivariate probit model (MVP) to analyze the factors that influence farmers’ adoption of multiple climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices. An endogenous treatment effects (eteffects) regression was used to estimate the impact of certification on the adoption of different CSA practices. The study found that age, education, farm size, access to extension services and storage facilities influenced the adoption of different CSA practices. After accounting for endogeneity, we found that the adoption of certification reduces the likelihood that farmers will use inorganic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides by about 50, 38 and 23 percentage points, respectively. We conclude that certification has the potential to reduce the adoption of agronomic practices that contribute to climate change. Our findings suggest that government, policymakers, the private sector and development partners should make efforts to enhance the adoption of certification. This can be done by enhancing access to credit facilities, extension services and high-value markets.

Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices are crucial in managing climatic shocks faced by smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. However, evidence on the socio-psychological drivers of farmers’ adoption of CSA practices remains limited. This study employed the Theory of Planned Behavior framework to analyze smallholder farmers’ intention and adoption behavior toward CSA practices in rural Ghana. The study sampled 350 smallholder farmers from the Upper East and North-East Regions of Ghana and employed the Structural Equation Model to understand smallholder farmers’ intention and adoption behavior toward CSA practices. Results showed that farmers’ attitudes (notably their beneficial evaluation of CSA practices) had a significant impact (0.25) on their intention to adopt CSA practices. Social pressure exerted on farmers to use CSA practices (Subjective norm) also had a significant impact (0.52) on farmers’ adoption behavior. Perceived behavior control which measures the controllability and use of CSA practices also had a significant impact on both the intention (0.43) and adoption behavior (0.20) of smallholder farmers. Findings highlight the role socio-psychological factors play in explaining the adoption of CSA practices in rural Ghana. We recommend the need to create awareness of CSA practices by sharing relevant information more widely on CSA practices through community leaders, chief farmers, assembly members, and clan heads in order to exert influence on farmer’s adoption of CSA practices.

PurposeThe adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) is important for sustaining Indian agriculture in the face of climate change. Despite considerable effort by both national and international agricultural organizations to promote CSAPs in India, adoption of these practices is low. This study aims to examine the elements that affect the likelihood and intensity of adoption of multiple CSAPs in Bihar, India.Design/methodology/approachThe probability and intensity of adoption of CSAPs are analyzed using multivariate and ordered probit models, respectively.FindingsThe results show significant correlations between multiple CSAPs, indicating that their adoptions are interrelated, providing opportunities to exploit the complementarities. The results confirm that both the probability and intensity of adoption of CSAPs are affected by numerous factors, such as demographic characteristics, farm plot features, access to market, socio-economics, climate risks, access to extension services and training. Farmers who perceive high temperature as the major climate risk factor are more likely to adopt crop diversification and minimum tillage. Farmers are less likely to adopt site-specific nutrient management if faced with short winters; however, they are more likely to adopt minimum tillage in this case. Training on agricultural issues is found to have a positive impact on the likelihood and the intensity of CSAPs adoption.Practical implicationsThe major policy recommendations coming from of our results are to strengthen local institutions (public extension services, etc.) and to provide more training on CSAPs.Originality/valueBy applying multivariate and ordered probit models, this paper provides some insights on the long-standing discussions on whether farmers adopt CSAPs in a piecemeal or in a composite way.

Climate change has adversely affected the food systems of developing countries, resulting in low yields, lower incomes, increasing poverty, and food insecurity. Adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices has emerged as an important strategy for mitigating risks and improving resilience to climate change. Although the empirical literature on the adoption of CSA has increased over time, the studies tend to focus on the crop sector, with evidence on the livestock sector remaining scanty. In this study, we examine the impact heterogeneity of adopting CSA practices on farm income and poverty alleviation using cross-sectional survey data in rural Pakistan. In particular, we investigate the implications of implementing CSA practices such as livestock diversification, reducing the number of animals to more productive animals, incorporating trees into livestock farming, animal healthcare measures, improving diet digestibility through feeding practices, housing modification for extreme weather protection, and feed availability in shortage periods. We employ a continuous treatment approach to estimate the average and marginal treatment effects of adoption intensity on farm income and poverty levels. Our findings reveal substantial heterogeneity in benefits derived from the adoption of CSA practices and indicate that the poverty headcount, poverty gap, and poverty severity declined from 0.04 to − 0.99 units, − 0.23 to − 0.83 units, and − 0.32 to − 0.63 units, respectively, as the adoption level increased from 14 to 100%. Farm income increased from Pakistani Rupee (PKR) 12,280 to 64,625 over the same adoption range. These findings highlight the need to promote the adoption of CSA to enhance farmers’ resilience.

Smallholder farmers in East Africa need information and knowledge on appropriate climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, technologies, and institutional innovations in order to effectively adapt to changing climatic conditions and cope with climate variability. This paper assesses farmer adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and innovation after being exposed to Farms of the Future Approach (FotF). First; we explore and assess the various CSA technologies and practices; including institutional innovations farmers are adopting. Second; we identify and document farmer learning and dissemination pathways that can enhance adoption of CSA technologies and practices. Third; we identify existing institutions that enhance adoption of CSA practices. We use household survey data, complemented by qualitative information from focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The results show farmers are adopting a variety of CSA technologies, practices, and institutional innovations to after participating in the FotF approach with use of improved crop varieties, agroforestry, and scientific weather forecast information cited as the main practices. To minimize their risks and reduce vulnerabilities, farmers are diversifying and integrating five to 10 CSA practices in one season. Matengo pits, SACCOs, and efficient energy stoves were adopted by very few farmers due to their high initial investment costs and unsuitability to the area. Ninety-eight percent of farmers reported that they receive agricultural information orally from a variety of sources including government extension workers, seed companies, researchers, traditional experts, neighbors, radio agricultural shows, religious groups, farmer groups, and family members. Lastly, farmers reported that the FotF approach is a useful tool that enabled them to interact with other farmers and learn new CSA practices and innovations. Suggested improvements to make on the FotF included include longer trip duration, increased number of farmer participants, and gender balance and age considerations to include youth.

To what extent do weather and climate information services drive the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices in Ghana?

Motivations, enablers and barriers to the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices by smallholder farmers: Evidence from the transitional and savannah agroecological zones of Ghana

Agriculture is highly vulnerable to the effect of climate change even though is the most weather dependent of human activities. Thus, there is a need for sustainable approach to practice of agriculture in the region. This study examined the determinants of adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) practices among yam based farming households in Ogun State, Nigeria. A sample of 160 respondents were selected through multi stage sampling technique from two out of the four Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) zones in the state and data were collected with the use of structured questionnaire, which was also used as an interview guide. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and multivariate probit model. The findings showed that 89.38% of the yam based farmers were men. Majority (65%) of the farmers were between 41 to 60 years. Also, it was revealed that only 16.3% of the respondents did not have any form of formal education. Mulching was found to be the CSA practice that is mostly adopted in the area with 90.6% of the respondents adopting the practice while mixed farming was the least adopted with 20.6% of the respondents adopting it. Also, it was revealed that on the average, a farmer adopted three out of the five practices considered. Furthermore, the multivariate probit results revealed the following factors that influence adoption of the various CSA practices; radio information, farm size, volume of credit, farming experience, number of contact with extension agent, and membership of cooperative society were positively significant at 1%, 5% and 10 % while sex, age, years of education, use of credit, access to extension service and membership of farmers association were negatively significant at 1%, 5% and 10 %. The study recommended that CSA practices should be introduced to yam based farmers not as a new set of technology but should be diffused to them as an improvement on those indigenous practices they are used to, to enable fast adoption of CSA practice in the area.

Synergies and trade-offs of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices selected by smallholder farmers in Geshy watershed, Southwest Ethiopia

Meteorological information utilization and adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices; modifying factors and mediating effect

With climate change, maize production is becoming more constrained by limited water availability especially in rainfed production systems. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices have potential to enhance water availability and water use efficiency in rainfed production systems, but their efficiencies have not been adequately investigated. The study evaluated the performance of permanent planting basins (PPB), mulching (M), and halfmoon pits (HM) on soil moisture storage, maize yield, and water use efficiency in a maize cropping system for the sub-humid areas of Uganda for three cropping seasons in Albert region. The control treatment consisted of bare soil as the existing conventional farming practice without any CSA practice. Maize growth parameters and soil moisture storage were monitored and evaluated in each cropping season and CSA treatment. The maize yield, water use efficiency, and evapotranspiration (ET), were determined in each CSA treatment. Results showed that CSA practices significantly increased (P < 0.05) total soil water storage (1–12%) than the control treatment. It was also noted that; the use of M, PPB, and HM increased the water use efficiency by 9 – 68% and 8 – 66% of grain yield compared to the control in the three growing seasons. Our results indicate that even under unreliable and limited precipitation in sub-humid regions, the studied CSA practices indicate a high possibility to increase maize productivity than conventional farming practices (control). These findings are critical as climate change continues to affect maize productivity in rainfed farming systems where there limited supplemental water alternative sources for smallholder farmers. The adoption of CSA practices will enhance the resilience of maize production in sub-humid regions.

Is investment in Climate-Smart-agricultural practices the option for the future? Cost and benefit analysis evidence from Ghana

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has gained traction as one of the effective strategies in tackling the climate crisis. Many CSA practices have been promoted by development agencies to smallholder farmers based on the assumption that farmers would adopt these innovations for their potential benefits. However, the adoption of CSA practices in Ghana and much of Africa remains low and decision making and on-farm innovation processes are poorly understood. This study seeks to provide empirical and participatory insight into how smallholder farmers innovate. Based on a novel application of a participatory video methodology, in farming communities in the Upper West Region of Ghana, that have been exposed to multiple CSA intervention programmes, the paper analyses farmers’ own self-curated accounts of experiences with CSA innovation. The findings show that farmer’s motivation to adopt CSA innovations is driven by their concerns for food security, economic gains, and the environmental impact of climate change on their farming activities and livelihood. The study reveals a mismatch between the CSA technologies and practices advanced by the development agencies and what farmers perceive as relevant and important in addressing their farming challenges. In particular, the findings show that in a pool of more than 12 CSA technologies and practices that had been promoted through three donor-driven intervention programmes in the communities, farmers selected less labour intensive, less costly, and CSA technologies and practices that fitted to their current farming practices and the local context. Agricultural extension agents served as an important information source on the CSA innovation and their practical implementation and farmers’ social groups played a crucial role in facilitating learning about the CSA technologies and practices. There is the need to integrate farmers voices using innovative methodologies such as participatory videos to better understand farmers’ experiences in the innovation process which will help inform the design of effective interventions and promote adoption of innovations aimed at enhancing the productivity of smallholder farmers and reducing environmental impacts in African food systems. By focusing on the innovations that farmers perceive as beneficial and adaptable to their local contexts, development organizations can use their resources more efficiently and promote adoption of contextually appropriate CSA innovations.

The study assessed smallholder farmers’ adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture practices in Borno State, Nigeria. Identified socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, assessed the respondents’ adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices and investigated the constraint by respondents in adopting climate-smart agriculture practices. Both primary and secondary sources were used. Multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select 200 respondents as the sample size. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentages, mean, standard deviation and likert type scale were used. The findings indicated that, majority (67.5%) of the respondents were within the prime working age of 20-49 years with a mean age of 43 years. Majority (75.5%) were male, 63.5% married with 43.0% had 7-9 persons per household. However, more than half (56%) of the respondents had no formal education, and 56% earn less than 50,000 Naira annually. The study also found that 58% had more than 10 years of farming experience, but only 30% were members of association. Conservation agriculture practices such as reduced tillage, crop residue management, and crop rotation/intercropping were rated 1st with the highest (x = 4.29) implying strong agreement to adoption of conservation agriculture practices. The climate smart agricultural practices highly adopted by the respondents include; water retention and erosion control technique (89%) and efficient fertilizer application technique (79.5%), moderately adopted practices; home garden (63%) and compost making/green manuring (58%), whereas least adopted practices; early warning system (20.0%) and use of more efficient cooking stove (17%). The most severe constraint identified include lack of awareness and limited information about climate smart agriculture practices (x=1.87), as well as limited access to credit (x=1.80). High cost of labor for climate smart agriculture and policy inconsistencies (x=1.32, 1.44) were identified as not severe constraint compared to others. The study recommended that Extension agents and Research institute should create more awareness on impact of adopting Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and improve easy accessibility to weather and climate information through provision of mobile-based platforms or community radio broadcasts that deliver timely and relevant information.