Adapting forestry and forests to climate change: A challenge to change the paradigm

Harnessing green wealth: A two-decade global assessment of forest carbon sequestration and credits and the economic implications of sustainable forest management practices.

Context Tropical regions have exceptional biodiversity and serve as invaluable sources of natural resources, particularly wood (Krainovic et al. 2025). The vast array of tree species in these forests results in significant variations in wood properties, including colour, density, biological durability, hardness, and mechanical strength (Bessa et al. 2023). These diverse characteristics make tropical wood highly versatile, offering numerous applications in construction, manufacturing, chemicals, energy, and beyond. In this context, tropical forests supply some of the most sought-after wood species in the global market, prized for their aesthetic appeal, mechanical properties, and long-term durability – qualities that enhance their commercial value (Richardson et al. 2023). The abundance of forests in tropical regions ensures that wood remains accessible to both urban and rural populations. For centuries, it has been a primary material for construction and cooking fuel, particularly in lower-income areas where alternative materials are scarce or prohibitively expensive (Pipa and Doug 2014). The widespread reliance on wood has led to overexploitation, driven by unsustainable harvesting practices that jeopardise the long-term health of these forests. A significant consequence of this heavy dependence on wood is the alarming rate of deforestation (FAO 2022), which is further exacerbated by illegal logging activities. The unlawful extraction of valuable timber species not only accelerates forest degradation but also undermines attempts to enact legal and sustainable management strategies (Pan et al. 2024). Addressing these challenges requires a strong commitment to research and innovation aimed at promoting the sustainable utilisation of tropical forest resources. Achieving a balance between forest resources demand and forest conservation is essential for ensuring the viability of these ecosystems for future generations. Emphasising technological advancements, enhancing resource efficiency, and adopting responsible forestry practices can help mitigate environmental impacts while creating economic opportunities for local communities. By integrating sustainability into forest management strategies, a harmonious relationship between economic development and long-term ecological preservation can be achieved. In this sense, the primary objective of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) conference was to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and best practices that integrate the productive utilisation of wood with the sustainable use of tropical forest resources. The target audience was professors, researchers, students, ministries, and industry professionals. The event aimed to inspire further research and innovations that would enable tropical forests to meet human needs while maintaining the integrity of these vital ecosystems. This conference was organized by the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and its local academic and institutional partners. As described in figure 1, the conference addressed four main themes: (i) Tropical wood identification and traceability; (ii) Wood usage in construction across tropical countries; (iii) Wood energy in tropical countries; and (iv) Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Organisation and objectives of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) The ICTW 2024 conference was scheduled from the 26th to the 28th of August 2024 in Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. It included invited keynotes, voluntary papers, round-table discussions, and field visits. The language of the conference and its publications was English. The conference was organised by the Research Group 5.01.00 “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antananarivo of the University of Antananarivo, the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antsiranana of the University of Antsiranana, the Institut Supérieur de Technologie Antananarivo, the Centre National de Formation des Techniciens Forestiers Angavokely, and the University of Edinburgh, under the patronage of the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development. The conference was attended by 106 people (figure 2) from 10 countries, including 4 invited keynotes, 60 voluntary papers and posters, a round-table discussion with local industries and ministries, and a field visit to Mandraka Saha Maintsoanala community forest, approximately 60 km from the capital (figure 3). All presentations were held live and on-site. The scientific program committee believes the selected articles provide a comprehensive overview of the conference’s four following themes: Tropical wood identification and traceability Accurate identification of wood species is essential for sustainable logging practices, as it helps ensure that only specific tree species are harvested, leaving others untouched to preserve biodiversity (Dormontt et al. 2015). Additionally, wood identification is crucial for tracking products along the supply chain, ensuring they are sourced from legal and sustainable origins (Raobelina et al. 2023; Tonouéwa et al. 2024). This session highlighted recent advancements in wood identification methods and traceability systems, focusing on the development of databases and technologies that can support these practices (figure 4). By enhancing wood identification, the industry can better manage resources and improve the sustainability of wood supply chains. Wood usage in construction across tropical countries Wood is widely used in construction across tropical regions, particularly in rural areas where access to other materials is limited. While some examples of tropical wood used in modern multi-story buildings exist (Murphy and Smallwood 2024), most constructions are still traditional, often using wood inefficiently or inadequately (Taleb et al. 2023). The choice of wood species and construction methods is influenced by factors such as material availability, cultural traditions, technical knowledge, and economic considerations. This session discussed the challenges and opportunities related to using wood sustainably in construction, particularly in tropical climates. Key topics included designing wood-based structures suitable for high humidity, heavy rainfall, termites, and other climate-related challenges, as well as improving wood preservation techniques and exploring alternative materials such as bamboo. Wood energy in tropical countries In many tropical countries, firewood and charcoal remain the primary sources of energy for cooking, particularly in rural areas where access to modern energy is limited. This widespread use of traditional fuels contributes significantly to deforestation (Randriamalala et al. 2017; Sedano et al. 2021). To address this, it is essential to improve technologies that reduce reliance on wood-based fuels and promote the use of alternative energy sources. This session focused on innovations in carbonisation techniques, the use of improved cookstoves, improvements in wood energy conversion technologies, and the exploration of alternative fuels such as green charcoal. It also discussed strategies for enhancing wood energy production through sustainable plantation management. Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have become increasingly important in tropical economies, as they offer an alternative to timber and contribute to the livelihoods of local populations (Ramananantoandro et al. 2013; Shackleton and de Vos 2022). This session focused on the latest advancements in the processing and commercialisation of NTFPs. By creating value-added products from these resources, NTFPs can provide financial benefits to communities while reducing pressure on timber resources. Presentations covered a wide range of NTFPs (essential oils, barks, resins, fruits, and more) and their applications in industries such as pharmaceuticals, food, and chemicals, highlighting their potential for both sustainable forest management and economic development. Strong relationship with the Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO The IUFRO is a global network of forest scientists and researchers focused on advancing knowledge and research related to forests, trees, and their sustainable management. Established in 1892, the IUFRO aims to foster international cooperation among forestry researchers and institutions, promote scientific knowledge, and support the development of sustainable forest management practices worldwide. The IUFRO brings together a wide range of forest-related research disciplines, from ecology to economics, and engages in initiatives that address global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity conservation, and forest health. It organises conferences, workshops, and collaborates with governments, organisations, and stakeholders in the forestry sector to promote evidence-based policy and practices. The organisation’s activities are structured around research groups and working parties that focus on specific areas of forest science, such as wood quality, forest restoration, forest carbon dynamics, and more. Through this collaboration, the IUFRO contributes to global forest sustainability by sharing knowledge and research findings, and fostering innovation in forest science. The Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO, part of the conference organisers, is dedicated to exploring various aspects of wood science, from its formation and structure to its processing and end-use properties. This group aims to deepen the understanding of the fundamental characteristics of wood, which are crucial for its sustainable utilisation. Through research on how environmental conditions, silvicultural practices, and genetics affect wood properties, the group seeks to improve wood and fibre quality for a wide range of applications. The group sponsors regional and international events, including technical meetings, training sessions, workshops, and symposia, which foster communication and collaboration among global experts. The goal of these activities is to share the latest developments in wood science and enhance the quality of research across borders. The Research Group currently has five Working Parties: Wood quality modelling Tree-ring analysis Understanding wood variability Non-destructive evaluation of wood and wood-based materials Fundamental properties of wood and woodbased materials ICTW conference papers published in Bois et Forêts des Tropiques The journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques (BFT) from the CIRAD publisher was a partner of the conference by being a member of its Scientific Committee. This partnership offers an opportunity to publish a full-length manuscript in a special issue of the Bois et Forêts de Tropiques journal, showcasing notable contributions presented during the conference. Articles in the framework of this special issue will be continuously published in the form of dossiers, inserting them in the table of contents of each following issue. They will be identified with the conference logos. The first article from the ICTW is included in this present issue (BFT N° 361). The article from Ramilison et al. (2024) (figure 5) deals with a comparative analysis of charcoal produced by three carbonisation methods in Madagascar. This research is issued from a PhD thesis work (doctoral student and his supervisors), representing a great example of the ICTW scientific theme “Wood energy in tropical countries”. Acknowledgments The authors thank the ForesTIA project funded by the UK Royal Academy of Engineering, the journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques published by CIRAD, Global Biodiversity Framework Implementation / Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Madagascar, the #DigitAg project supported by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the “Investissements d’avenir” program (ANR-16-CONV-0004), DP Forêts & Biodiversité, Groupe de Recherche (GDR) Sciences du Bois, G3D2 project funded by the Delegation of the European Union to the Republic of Madagascar and the Union of the Comoros, Biodev Consulting Madagascar, ACEP Madagascar S.A., TELMA Madagascar, Hazovato, Les Scieries du Betsileo, and Tropical Wood, for their support in organizing the conference.

Forests can play an important role in climate change mitigation. However, limited information is available worldwide regarding forest carbon and biomass stocks. Financial mechanisms such as ‘reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation of forest carbon, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks’ (REDD+) also emphasize the quantification of forest biomass and carbon. This study aimed to estimate the forest biomass in two forests of Margalla Hills National Park (MHNP): Sub-tropical Chir Pine Forest (SCPF) and Sub-tropical Broadleaved Evergreen Forest (SBEF). For this, circular sampling plots of a 20 m radius were used for the collection of the variables, “diameter at breast height (DBH) and height”. Statistical analysis was done for exploring regression relationships between the variables. We found a mean Aboveground Carbon (AGC) of 73.36 ± 32.55 Mg C ha−1 in SCPF and a mean AGC of 16.88 ± 25.81 Mg C ha−1 in SBEF. The mean Aboveground Biomass (AGB) for SCPF was recorded as 146.73 ± 65.11 Mg ha−1, while for SBEF it was 33.77 ± 51.63 Mg ha−1. It was therefore concluded that the SCPF had higher mean AGB and mean AGC than the SBEF. Similar differences were also noticed in the structural characteristics of the two forests. These could be valuable information while designing sustainable management plans and afforestation programmes for the future and also for accessing nature-based funding such as REDD+.

以东北天然林保护工程区森林生态系统为对象，通过对其主要森林类型进行调查，探讨天保工程经营区划对森林植被固碳现状的影响，并结合已有的东北林区生物量与蓄积量数据库，建立了东北林区主要树种组的生物量-蓄积量回归模型，然后以第7次森林资源清查为基础，对东北天保工程区森林植被碳储量进行估算，以期为全国森林生物量的估算和天保工程的评估提供参考。结果表明，不同经营区之间（重点公益林、一般公益林和商品林）森林植被碳密度的差异并不显著，这可能与天然林保护工程实施初期经营区划的标准、样地的选择以及天保工程实施过程中粗放的管理方式有关。东北天保工程区森林植被碳储量为1045 TgC，占东北、内蒙古三省森林植被总碳储量的68%；工程区以天然林为主，占工程区总植被碳储量的97%。工程区森林植被平均碳密度为41 Mg/hm²，较东北、内蒙古三省平均植被碳密度高14%；工程区植被碳密度随林龄的增加逐渐增大，由幼龄林的13 Mg/hm²到过熟林的63 Mg/hm²。因此，继续加强天然林保护工程的实施，提高其林分质量，这对未来我国森林碳汇潜力的增加和森林的可持续发展都具有重要的意义。;The Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP), which aims at protecting ecological resources and achieving sustainable forest management, has been implemented for 10 years in Northeast China. Under the program forest ecosystems in the region have been divided into three management areas-Key conservation, General conservation and Commercial forest. Each of these three types of forest land is subject to different management measures (protecting or logging). Estimating carbon storage of forest vegetation in these areas is important both for understanding the capacity of forests in the Northeast region for carbon sequestration and as an aid to assessing the effectiveness of the NFPP in meeting its goals. To address this important need, this study selected five major forest types in the Northeast forest region-larch forest, birch forest, coniferous mixed forest, broadleaved mixed forest, coniferous and broadleaved mixed forest. Each forest type was divided into four age classes-young, mid-aged, premature and over mature forest. Tree biomass was calculated through species-specific allometric equation models based on field measurement in the Daxing'anling, Xiaoxing'anling and Changbai mountains. At the same time, an dataset on biomass and volume of the main forest types in the Northeast forest region was established based on existing data from former studies. Since some studies have found that the relationship between forest biomass and volume fits relatively well within a liner regression framework, this study utilized this two data sources noted above to establish biomass-volume line regression models of the main tree species groups in the Northeast, focusing primarily on the five major forest types identified above. Forest biomass carbon storage in areas under the NFPP in the Northeast region was subsequently estimated based on data from the 7th National Forest Resource Inventory. Results showed that forest biomass carbon storage based on field measurement did not varied significantly with management areas, which likely reflects both the classification standard for the management areas and the relatively short period since the NFPP have been implemented. On the other hand, forest biomass carbon storage of lands under the NFPP was 1045 TgC, which accounted for 68% of total forest biomass carbon storage in the Northeast provinces of Jilin, Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia. Moreover, forest biomass carbon density of lands under the program (41 Mg/hm²) exceeded that of the average biomass carbon density in Northeast provinces (36 Mg/hm²). Simultaneously, in the lands of the NFPP, forest biomass C density increased with forest age class, from 16.4 Mg/hm² in young to 63.0 Mg/hm² in over mature forest, thus the relative large areas of young and mid-aged forests (together accounted for 61% of total forest area), implying its great C sequestration potential in the future. In addition, forest biomass carbon storage was dominated by natural forest, which accounted for 97% of total biomass carbon storage under the NFPP. On an overall basis, the Natural Forest Protection Program acts an important role in the Northeast forest region, and it should be played an increasingly important role in forest ecosystem carbon sequestration and sustainable forest management in the next implemented decade.

Forests are essential in combating climate change by functioning as carbon sinks, sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in biomass and soil. India, possessing various forest ecosystems, holds substantial potential for carbon sequestration. Climate change, marked by increasing temperatures, altered precipitation patterns and extreme weather phenomena, jeopardizes forest biomass and carbon sequestration. This systematic analysis evaluates the effects of climate change on forest biomass and carbon sequestration in several forest types in India. The study evaluates different methodologies for biomass estimation, including destructive, non-destructive and remote sensing approaches. It highlights the contributions of diverse forest types such as Himalayan forests, tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, mangroves and agroforestry systems in carbon sequestration. The findings indicate that while Indian forests act as vital carbon reservoirs, deforestation, land-use changes and climate-induced stressors have generally decreased the carbon sequestration potential of these forests by reducing biomass accumulation and increasing ecosystem stress, although variability exists across forest types. Sustainable forest management, afforestation and climate-resilient strategies are essential to enhance carbon storage. Integrating remote sensing technologies, ecological modeling and policy frameworks like REDD+ can aid in better monitoring and conservation efforts. This review provides insights into future strategies to strengthen India’s forest carbon sequestration capacity and mitigate climate change impacts.

As one of the most important carbon sinks and carbon pools globally, forest ecosystems play a critical role in absorbing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The implementation of eco-engineering has transformed China into one of the hotspots in global greening. However, great differences in natural conditions between subregions, function transformation of forest ecosystem between carbon gain and carbon loss due to rapid land use changes, and uncertainties in the stability and sustainability of forest ecosystem functions resulting from climate change, lead to the large-scale forest carbon sink capacity and future carbon sink potential remaining largely unclear. This lack of clarity is not conducive to the formulation of climate change mitigation strategies in China. Therefore, it’s urgent to undertake the quantification and assessment of forest aboveground biomass carbon with high spatiotemporal resolution. Here, using a machine learning model, six bands of Landsat images, along with 3 indicators derived from the bands by raster calculators at a resolution of 30m × 30m, were used to train the estimate model of aboveground biomass carbon density in combination with the adjusted aboveground biomass / carbon products from 2019. Subsequently, the carbon density from 1985 to 2023 at a 30m × 30m resolution were predicted. The model’s RMSE was 9.03 MgC ha-1 and the R2 of test datasets stabilized around 0.77. We found that forest aboveground biomass carbon stock decreased first and then increased during the period. Despite a decreasing trend in the area of stable forests, the carbon stock increased from 7.50 PgC to 8.05 PgC, at a rate of 0.015 PgC yr-1. The area of secondary forests, however, showed the most rapid regrowth in carbon density during the period, with a rate of 0.46 MgC ha-1 yr-1. Over the past about four decades, carbon loss due to deforestation amounted to approximately 1.49 PgC, while carbon gain from plantation sumed to 4.55 PgC. Spatial and temporal high-resolution data of forest aboveground biomass carbon serve as an invaluable resource for identifying areas with significant carbon stocks and high carbon sink potential, and allows an in-depth understanding of the differences in dynamic patterns over time in China’s forest and provides a scientific reference for optimizing land management.

Mapping aboveground biomass and carbon in Shanghai's urban forest using Landsat ETM+ and inventory data

Sustainable forest management (SFM) plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting livelihoods, and mitigating climate change. This study was conducted to explore the management practices and user perspectives regarding sustainable forest management in Nepal, focusing on community forestry and government-led initiatives. Using a mixed-methods approach, data were collected through surveys, interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. A total of 180 user’s opinion were collected in 9 selected forest user groups from four district of Nepal (i.e. Ilam, Jhapa, Sarlahi, and Makawanpur). The study revealed that major forest management practices applied by community users’ are thinning, pruning, and improvement felling. Majority of the users (70.56%) were unsure about the forest management practices prescribed in the Operational plans (OPs). Accordingly, most users (92.78%) were agreed with the opinions that they need to be trained about forest management practices and its implementation. Majority of the users (92.00%) also agreed that participatory forest management modalities like Community Forest (CF), Collaborative Forest Management (CFM) and Leasehold Forest (LHF) area protecting biodiversity and reducing environmental risks. However, people believe that arbitrary policy changes was the main challenges for proper implementation of sustainable forest management practices. Therefore, strengthening capacity-building programs, enhancing government support, developing a consistent guideline, and promoting adaptive management practices are essential for improving sustainable forest resource management in Nepal.

Beech is a very widespread species on the entire Eurasian continent. It grows and develops in different ecological and habitat conditions in a wide horizontal and vertical amplitude. It can be found at altitudes below 100 and above 2,000 m. Beech forests develop in different age stands from young to very old (old-growth forests). They can be pure or mixed with other species or they can be very different in origin (generative or vegetative). They develop as eaven-aged or uneaven-aged stands, and some of the beech forests have the characteristics of forests with high natural values and are very important for the conservation of biodiversity. Their natural regeneration process is of essential importance for the survival and sustainable development of beech forests. Restoration of beech forests can be achieved naturally or artificially. In modern forestry science and practice, natural forest regeneration is always preferred. The processes of natural regeneration have different development depending on whether they take place under the protection of the parent stand or take place in an open canopy in the forest or on uncultivated terrain. The density of the canopy has a great influence, so that with the increase of the canopy of the parent stand during the natural renewal, there is a decrease in the number of regeneration individuals(offsprings) in all developmental stages. During the natural regeneration in different conditions of the stand canopy and the size of the openings within the forest, the most abundant and best regeneration is observed in the openings up to 500 m², then for openings within 500 and 1,000 m², and least in openings between 1,000 and 1,500 m². This clearly indicates that large openings within the forest are not suitable for the natural regeneration of beech because the number of offsprings, which are very necessary in the younger developmental stages, is continuously decreasing. The natural renewal that develops in the conditions of circular openings within the size of up to 500 m² has the best quality structure of the offspring. In such openings, about 60% of the offspring is of good quality, about 25% is of medium quality and about 15% is of poor quality. In openings between 500 and 1,000 m2 , the number of good quality natural regeneration is reduced to 41%, the number of medium quality natural regeneration is increased to 38% and from poor quality to 21%. The quality structure of natural regeneration is further reduced in openings between 1,000 and 1,500 m² where only about 20% of the offsprings is of good quality, about 30% is of medium quality and about 50% is ofpoor quality. With openings larger than 500 m², weeds are very common. Beech stands in different habitats have large differences in their productivity, caused by the wide range of the beech forests in different habitat conditions and in different cultivation forms. Aboveground biomass in beech forests varies depending on the age of the forest, the way it is managed and used, as well as numerous environmental factors. High values of aboveground biomass in preserved oldgrowth beech forests above 750 t·ha-1 are known. Moderate values in commercial forests range between 200 and 400 t·ha-1 . In dominant trees, the largest biomass is found in tree crowns, while in subdominant and suppressed trees, the largest biomass is in the trunk, which is the result of a smaller crown due to the lack of solar radiation. Generally, 1/3 or slightly less of the aboveground biomass comes from the branches, the leaves cover about 1-2%, while the largest biomass (60- 70%) is concentrated in the tree. Dead biomass in beech forests consists of dead biomass accumulated in the forest floor, as well as in standing and lying dead biomass. Forest biomass varies in European beech forests: beech forests in the north show less biomass of 3-12 t·ha-1 , while high values (25-75 t·ha-1 ) are registered for the southeastern parts. Standing dead biomass in forests amounts to 1.2-6.0% of living aboveground biomass or 2-5 t·ha-1 . Lying dead biomass in European beech forests varies to a very large extent depending on the conservation of beech forests and their developmental stage. The European range is 32-310 m3 ∙ha-1 , and values above 130 m3 ∙ha-1 belong to the preserved beech forest reserves. When choosing methods of beech forest management, one should always take into account the biological characteristics of beech in relation to the ecological conditions in the area where beech develops. Today, various and professionally supported methods of forest management with the aim of their sustainable development demand great importance for beech forests.

This chapter presents an overview on historical and current forestry and forest management in China. Although China’s natural forests had greatly reduced over the past several centuries due mainly to agricultural development, over-exploration and wars, there has been a sustained growth in total forest area and volume for several decades partly because of the implementation of several national key forestry programs aiming at biodiversity conservation and sustainable forestry development. China’s forest resource today is still insufficient because of low quality and productivity, and inadequate forest management. The major problems of forest management in China include deficiency in linking forest management with end usage, inadequate forest health management, lack of integrated forest landscape management, and unbalanced consideration on economy over environment. Forest management must address increasing concerns on challenges and emerging global issues, of which climate change is identified as the most severe threat. To tackle the existing problems and cope with uncertainties in changing environmental conditions with climate change, landscape ecology can play a major role in facilitating sustainable forest management (SFM) by providing theories and management tools for forest restoration, biodiversity conservation, land and water resource management and forest landscape planning. Forest management practices that consider spatial heterogeneity, pattern-process, disturbance regime, scale and spatial-temporal context of forest landscapes beyond forest boundary are increasingly adopted by forest researchers and managers in China. However, more research is needed to enhance long-term forest ecosystem monitoring, develop cross-scale and multiple-purpose forest management guidelines, improve landscape decision support systems, and formulate integrated ecosystem management policies and practices so that forest landscape management can be adapted to climate change and landscape sustainability can be strengthened.

Global trends of increasing threat to forests and the environment, as well as the efforts of humanity to achieve greater material and economic benefits have influenced the acceptance of the concept of sustainable development and forest management. Sustainability in forestry is applied as a principle of regulated management that has long been associated with the concept of sustainability (continuity) of production, yield and income. It represents the basic principle of forest management in the Republic of Srpska in which the priority is the production (economic) function. Sustainable forest development is enabled if forests are managed in such a way as to preserve their biodiversity, productivity, natural regeneration, vitality, and their potential so that forests now and in the future perform significant ecological, economic and social functions locally, nationally and globally. level. Regarding indicators of sustainable forest management, there are differences between organizations, so there is a need to achieve widely recognized harmonization in order to facilitate the analysis and adoption of measures to improve sustainable forest management. Forestry is often viewed in the context of overall sustainable development, because the SDGs goals affirmed the economic and environmental component of sustainable development. Strategic development goals in modern European forestry are of a sectoral, social, political, economic and environmental nature. The United Nations has defined 17 basic goals of sustainable development, and almost all of them are directly and indirectly related to forestry. The global goals and measures in forestry that need to be achieved by 2030 are: stopping the trend of forest loss around the world, increasing economic, environmental and social support provided by forests, increasing the area of protected forests and strengthening cooperation and partnerships in scientific and technical forestry. Due to the mutual interaction and contradictions of goals and measures, certain compromises are needed, and due to the pronounced multifunctionality of forests and the manner of their use, the principles of certification of sustainable forest management have been promoted. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC 1993) and Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC 1999) are mainly applied. In the Republic of Srpska, the FSC FM certificate has been held by JPŠ "Šume Republike Srpske" a.d. since 2008. Sokolac, while private forests are not certified. In the Republika Srpska/BiH, FSC standards for sustainable forest management have been developed, which have been used since March 22, 2020. years (FSC 2019) and have a validity period of five years. The evaluation of the functions of our forests is not always in line with modern trends in the evaluation of forest resources, because the indicators related to productivity from the point of view of raw material base, growth and simple reproduction are quantified. Forestry development guidelines must be strategically focused on priority areas: forest cultivation and protection, development of a sustainable environment, development of human resources and education systems, and business use of information and communication technology. Necessary coherence, complementarity and integration of sustainable development goals have influenced the inclusion of forestry as an important economic activity for achieving human health, access to renewable energy, food, drinking water, the fight against climate change and others. Contemporary intentions that are insisted on when it comes to the importance of forest ecosystems, and current topics in the process of education, forestry science and profession relate to ecosystem services and biodiversity, forest protection, biomass production for energy, new technologies, information systems and monitoring.

Climate change mitigation benefits from the land sector are not being fully realised because of uncertainty and controversy about the role of native forest management. The dominant policy view, as stated in the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report, is that sustainable forest harvesting yielding wood products, generates the largest mitigation benefit. We demonstrate that changing native forest management from commercial harvesting to conservation can make an important contribution to mitigation. Conservation of native forests results in an immediate and substantial reduction in net emissions relative to a reference case of commercial harvesting. We calibrated models to simulate scenarios of native forest management for two Australian case studies: mixed-eucalypt in New South Wales and Mountain Ash in Victoria. Carbon stocks in the harvested forest included forest biomass, wood and paper products, waste in landfill, and bioenergy that substituted for fossil fuel energy. The conservation forest included forest biomass, and subtracted stocks for the foregone products that were substituted by non-wood products or plantation products. Total carbon stocks were lower in harvested forest than in conservation forest in both case studies over the 100-year simulation period. We tested a range of potential parameter values reported in the literature: none could increase the combined carbon stock in products, slash, landfill and substitution sufficiently to exceed the increase in carbon stock due to changing management of native forest to conservation. The key parameters determining carbon stock change under different forest management scenarios are those affecting accumulation of carbon in forest biomass, rather than parameters affecting transfers among wood products. This analysis helps prioritise mitigation activities to focus on maximising forest biomass. International forest-related policies, including negotiations under the UNFCCC, have failed to recognize fully the mitigation value of native forest conservation. Our analyses provide evidence for decision-making about the circumstances under which forest management provides mitigation benefits.

Forest ecosystems are a prime example of the heated debates that have arisen around how forests should be managed, and what services and benefits they should deliver. The European transitions in governance to and from communist regimes have had significant impacts on forests and their management. Unstable legislative and institutional changes prior to, during, and after a communist regime, combined with unique remnant areas of high-conservation-value forests, make Romania an ideal case study to explore the social–ecological transitions of forest landscapes. The aim of this paper is two-fold. First, we present the origins of, the evolution of, and the current state of forest management and ownership in Romania during transitions between the pre-communist (–1945), communist (1945–1989), and EU periods (2007–). Second, we focus on the enablers and barriers in Romania towards sustainable forest management as defined by pan-European forest policies. We used a semi-systematic, five-step scientific literature review on forest ownership, governance, and management in Romania. The analysis shows that both enablers (e.g., forest certification) and barriers (e.g., redundancy and the questionable effectiveness of the network of protected areas; illegal, unsustainable, and unreported logging; loopholes in the legislative framework) have contributed to the current approaches to interpreting forests, forestry, and forest management. The installation of the communist regime translated into sustained wood yield forest management under singular forest ownership, which opposed the previous system and forest ownership pluralism. In the post-communist period, forestland restitution led to significant legislative changes, but forest management must still confront remnant elements of the communist approach. Both communist and post-communist policies related to forests have shaped the evolution of forest landscape management in Romania, thus stressing the need to learn from the past towards securing sustainable forest management into the future. These lessons provide insights on both positive and negative drivers of forest management, which can contribute to smooth future transition towards more sustainable forest management practices.

PROTOCOL: Incentives for climate mitigation in the land use sector: a mixed-methods systematic review of the effectiveness of payment for environment services (PES) on environmental and socio-economic outcomes in low- and middle-income countries.

Malaysia has a large extent of forest cover that plays a crucial role in storing biomass carbon and enhancing carbon sink (carbon sequestration) and reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions, which helps to reduce the negative impacts of global climate change. This article estimates the economic value of forest carbon stock and carbon value per hectare of forested area based on the price of removing per ton CO2eq in USD from 1990 to 2050. The economic value of biomass carbon stored in the forests is estimated at nearly USD 51 billion in 2020 and approximately USD 41 billion in 2050, whereas carbon value per hectare forest area is estimated at USD 2885 in 2020 and USD 2388 in 2050. If the BAU scenario of forest loss (converting forests to other land use) continues, the projected estimation of carbon stock and its economic value might fall until 2050 unless further initiatives on proper planning of forest management and ambitious policy implementation are taken. Instead, Malaysia’s CO2 emission growth started to fall after 2010 due to rising forest carbon sink of 282 million tons between 2011 and 2016, indicating a huge potential of Malaysian forests for future climate change mitigation. The estimated and projected value of carbon stock in Malaysian forest biomass, annual growth of forest carbon, forest carbon density and carbon sink would be useful for the better understanding of enhancing carbon sink by avoiding deforestation, sustainable forest management, forest conservation and protection, accurate reporting of national carbon inventories and policy-making decisions. The findings of this study could also be useful in meeting emission reduction targets and policy implementation related to climate change mitigation in Malaysia.