Achievable or unbelievable? Expert perceptions of the European Union targets for emissions, renewables, and efficiency

The 1691G>A FV variant has been described as a common genetic risk factor in venous thromboembolism. The purpose of this study was to provide a further frequency value for 1691G>A FV in Poland and to collate summary data from Central (Poland, Czech, Slovakia), Eastern (Russia, Belarus, Ukraine) and South-Eastern (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bulgaria) European countries. For this purpose in 2007 the 1691G>A FV variant was analyzed by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism from DNA collected in 2005-2006. We studied 650 subjects: 400 newborns and 250 older individuals (mean age 46.1 y) from Poland and compared results with reports from other countries, as well as with the frequency trend of 845G>A HFE across South-Eastern European countries using centroid cities. From our 1691G>A FV study we identified 626 GG homozygotes, 23 GA heterozygotes, and 1 AA homozygote (n = 650), giving an A allele frequency of 1.9%, and a summed frequency value for Poland of 2.0% (n = 1588); the frequency in Central European countries was 3.9% (n = 4559), mostly due to the high value in the Czech Republic: 5.1% (n = 2819); the South-Eastern European countries had 2.5% (n = 2410). Among the Eastern European countries the 1691G>A FV allele frequency was 1.9% (n=791), between the South-Eastern and Eastern European countries there was no significant difference (p=0.17). We confirm that the 1691G>A FV allele frequency in Poland, as well as other countries compared, is significantly lower than that in Czech.

Overcoming resistance.

Epidemiological data of renal disease are available from large national renal biopsy registries from Central and Western European countries; in contrast, detailed epidemiological data from Eastern European countries are missing. This report is the first review of histological data, over a period of 10 years (1995-2004), covering a population of over 6 million inhabitants and two distinct regions from an East European country - Romania. 635 eco-guided kidney biopsies from the Moldova (North-Eastern Romania, 8 counties, 4 754 048 inhabitants) and Banat (Western Romania, 3 counties, 1 454 747 inhabitants) regions were analysed. Data on serum creatinine concentration (sCr), 24 h proteinuria, haematuria, clinical diagnosis, histological diagnosis and complications after renal biopsy were collected. The number of biopsies performed varied between 10.9 p.m.p./year in 1995 and 11.3 p.m.p./year in 2004. The most common clinical syndromes - as indication for performing the renal biopsy - were: nephrotic syndrome (52.3%), followed by nephritic syndrome (21.9%), acute renal failure (ARF) (12.4%), chronic kidney disease (CKD) (10.2%) and asymptomatic urinary abnormalities (AUA) (3.3% of the cases). The major histological groups identified were: primary glomerulonephritis (GN) (66.2%), secondary GN (26.4%), vascular nephropathies (2.3%), and tubulointerstitial nephropathies (TIN) (1.5%) of the cases. Among primary GN's, the most frequent diagnoses were: membranoproliferative GN (MPGN) (29.4%, incidence in 2004 - 9.3 p.m.p./year), mesangioproliferative GN (MesGN) (28.9%, incidence - 10 p.m.p./year), membranous GN (MGN) (11.2%, incidence - 5.3 p.m.p./year), minimal change disease (MCD) (8.5%, incidence - 7.3 p.m.p./year), focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (11.5%, incidence - 3.3 p.m.p./year) and crescentic GN (CGN) (7.9%, incidence - 3.3 p.m.p./year). The prevalence of membranoproliferative GN significantly decreased from 1995 to 2004. The prevalence of different types of secondary GN was similar to Western and Central European countries, with the particular difference of higher infectious diseases associated GN. The present data are an important contribution to the epidemiology of renal diseases in Europe, highlighting not only numerous similarities but also significant epidemiological differences in Western and Central European countries, particularly a higher, albeit declining, incidence and prevalence of membranoproliferative GN. This report represents the basis for the future of Romanian Registry of Renal Biopsies and is intended to serve as a source of information for nephrologists concerned with East European renal pathology.

Editorial: Governing the EU's climate and energy transition through the 2030 Framework

Ecological unequal exchange between Turkey and the European Union: An assessment from value added perspective

This study aims at documenting differentials in the cancer mortality profile of European countries during the recent process of intense geo-political transformations. The World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe provided information on cancer mortality and several covariates for each country. In contrast with the European Union and Nordic countries, Central and Eastern Europe presented higher current levels and increasing trend of cancer mortality. Age-standardized rates for overall cancer mortality increased at an annual average of 2.43% in Central and Eastern European countries during the period from 1980 to 2001, while the European Union, Nordic countries and Switzerland underwent an average decrease of 7.27% per year. Trends in cancer death rates were associated with indices of welfare and socio-economic status at the country level: gross national product, health expenditure, unemployment, food intake, smoking habits and air pollution. Concurrent with this observation, we registered an extended gap in standings for these figures between richer and poorer European countries. These observations suggest that part of cancer mortality in Central and Eastern Europe could be prevented with current technology and health promotion. The drop of rates in Nordic and Western European countries indicates a progress in cancer control that, regrettably, does not hold for the whole Continent.

A harmonized calculation model for transforming EU bottom-up energy efficiency indicators into empirical estimates of policy impacts

We aimed to 1) estimate the associations between innovation and international orientation of early-stage entrepreneurs and their growth aspirations and 2) determine whether these associations differ across south-eastern European countries (SeECs) and western European countries (WECs). We used the data from the 2003–2008 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Adult Population Survey for 3,098 SeEC and 3,626 WEC entrepreneurs. The results show that 1) a firm’s high level of competition inhibits its growth aspirations in both regions, albeit more so in SeECs; 2) innovative products/services stimulate firm growth aspirations in WECs only; and 3) international orientation stimulates firm growth aspirations in both regions, albeit more so in WECs.

As decarbonization and climate policy are gaining relevance in the European Union (EU) energy policy, the present paper seeks to present both priorities and challenges for of the EU energy transition. As priorities, we outline the key targets and initiatives proposed and set by the European institutions in relation to the energy matters. The EU identifies renewable energy sources, energy efficiency and reduction of the greenhouse gas (GHG) as the three pillars to achieve its carbon neutrality. The final goal for to the EU energy and climate targets is to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Nevertheless, since given energy policy is being a “shared competence” between the EU institutions and Member States, each Member State plays a critical role for the achievement of the EU energy transition. Different socioeconomic structures and the energy mix across Europe have caused the implementation process of each EU target to develop at a different pace among European countries. We illustrate this drawing on four countries: Italy, the UK, Germany and Poland. We assess their political commitment to the energy transition and their actions regarding energy transformation. These four countries are only an example of the different pace in the implementation of the EU energy and climate targets. The last part of the paper is devoted to the ambitious plan, called Green New Deal, launched by the present Commission President, Ursula von der Leyen. It sets key priorities, reaffirming European commitments to the energy and climate transition. However, the plan faces significant obstacles. For example, division among Member States (North-South and West-East) might be a factor that could undermine the achievement of the European energy transition, due to multiple and divergent interests (also on the future role of the energy transition in the aftermath of COVID-19 and the resulting economic crisis). Another challenge is constituted by popular opposition, especially from those people that see the energy transition — and consequent economic and industrial transformation — as a potential threat to their well-being and jobs, as the French gilets jaunes show. Lastly, we explain that the European energy transition will impact also its external relations, for example with Russia, proposing how the two blocs can preserve their energy relationship in light of the energy transition, notably through the conversion of natural gas to hydrogen and storing/using the resulting CO2.

Energy issues are sensitive for the four Visegrad countries as European Union (EU) member states; thus, this area’s convergence might be problematic for these countries. There is a clear research gap concerning the processes of Europeanization of the energy policy in the Visegrad countries. This article aims to identify and evaluate the progress of four Visegrad countries (V4) in implementing the EU energy goals in the context of the Europeanization. The article uses three main methods: Hellwig’s method, Kendall’s rank concordance coefficient, and k-means clustering. These calculations will allow one to study the Europeanization processes, which means checking the gamma convergence. For calculations, we use the available statistical data from Eurostat for the years 2005–2018. Poland and other Central European countries, including Czechia, and Hungary, largely depend on coal for their energy needs. The empirical results have shown that there have been no significant changes in the classification of EU countries in terms of their fulfillment of the EU climate and energy targets in the analyzed period. This is the case in all EU member states, including the Visegrad Group countries, but except for Poland. This means that the level of Europeanization of the energy policy and its effectiveness is similar in all member states except for Poland, which is becoming a kind of the exception. Throughout the investigating period, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia were close to meeting the set targets and could be rated high compared to the EU countries. Poland, especially since 2015, has been noticeably and increasingly distanced from the other V4 countries. It can be perceived as a gradual drift away from Europeanization of the EU climate and energy policy in Poland.

Over the last few decades, the frequency of major disasters caused by the impact of natural hazards has increased significantly, causing an increase in losses, both total economic and insured. This considerable increase can be fully attributed to weather-related events, which are inherently linked to climate change. The European Union (EU) community, and particularly the countries of South Eastern Europe (SEE), is prone to natural hazards such as earthquakes, floods and forest fires. In the SEE countries, the adverse effects of natural calamities, most of which can be assigned to climate change, are already being felt in many sectors of economy and at the macro level. The main objectives of this study have been two-fold. On the one hand, the study has attempted to establish the extent of financial vulnerability of governments and households to natural hazards in ten countries of South Eastern Europe. On the other hand, the study aims to outline a range of practical solutions and policy recommendations for the problem of the growing financial exposure from disasters caused by the impact of natural hazards for governments, businesses and individuals.This study is intended for four principal audiences: government officials in SEE countries; World Bank staff involved in disaster risk financing and reconstruction projects; the international development community; and the private insurance and reinsurance industry. The structure of the report is as follows: Chapter I is an Introduction. Chapter II reviews the EU regional financial safety net mechanisms that can be mobilized in case of major disasters caused by the impact of natural hazards, focusing mainly on the EU Solidarity Fund. Chapter III examines the fiscal capacity of SEE countries to cope on their own with large disaster events. Chapter IV reviews the existing diverse experience in covering the losses from disasters caused by the impact of natural hazards in disaster risk insurance in France, Spain and Germany. Chapter V presents an overview of the state of disaster insurance markets in SEE countries. Chapter VI presents the main findings and policy recommendations.

The integration of climate policy concerns in other policy areas where decisions are taken that determine greenhouse gas emissions is a prerequisite for effectively mitigating climate change. There are particularly strong interlinkages between energy and climate policy as the major part of greenhouse gas emissions is related to energy supply and use. We compile a set of five output‐focused indicators for assessing climate policy integration (political commitment, functional overlap, policy instruments, weighting, and time perspective). We then apply the criteria for an appraisal of climate policy integration in European Union (EU) energy policy during the last decade; that is, we focus on climate policy integration from a horizontal perspective. The focus of our research lies on the comparison of the Renewable Energy and the Energy Efficiency Directives of the Energy Union Package with their predecessors. Our results show that climate change mitigation is a key objective in these documents. The energy policy objectives are generally synergetic with climate policy. The Energy Union Package makes progress in some areas like the more stringent EU targets for renewable energy and energy efficiency or the more stringent sustainability criteria for biofuels. However, some conflicting issues arise. The shift from national to an overall EU renewables target and the change towards more market‐oriented support schemes might together with the elimination of preferential grid access for renewable electricity entail negative impacts on renewable investment and on achieving emission reductions. It remains to be seen whether the adaptations in EU energy policy will lead to the required acceleration of the energy transition.

Today, with the aid of the international community [European Union (EU), World Bank (WB), World Health Organisation (WHO), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), Global Fund (GF), Stability Pact, etc.] the ministries of health in transitional countries in the South Eastern Europe (SEE) region are in the process of expanding the capacities and skills of the health workforce in order to achieve successful health care reform and accomplish necessary steps for EU integration. The aim of this paper is to review international community support to reconstruction of the health care in SEE countries, with main focus on the EU and WB donors and projects. Review was done on the basis of existing donor reports, Internet search (search of official Web sites and electronic databases, check of references from selected documents, and use of a generic Internet search engine) and authors’ experience from different health projects. The governments of SEE countries, in order to create an effective and efficient health system, overcame a period of transition and soon or later became ready for the process of EU integration, and began working on the following issues: rehabilitation, reconstruction and equipping of health facilities; developing a health strategy and policy documents; legislation and financing framework; building institutional, human resource and management capacity; health care sector reform; support to public health development and restructuring of the pharmaceutical sector. In many SEE countries, the capacity of the Ministry of Health and Health Insurance Fund was strengthened, and policy and strategy documents were drafted to guide reorganisation and reorientation of health care services. The public health system was strengthened. A family medicine model was introduced and developed in most countries. Development of enabling legislation mostly followed proposed changes in the health system. Although progress on several important fronts in achieving transition and progress in the rehabilitation health sector in SEE countries is significant, a lot remains to be done. Experience in some countries can be used to stimulate, motivate and encourage professionals throughout the civil service to grasp with both hands the opportunities for positive change.

Declining mortality from kidney cancer in Europe

This chapter, from a monograph on climate change and European emissions trading, reviews European Union (EU) greenhouse gas emissions trading and competition law that arise under the UE Emissions Trading System (ETS). The author also comments on the proposed 2008 amendment to Directive 2003/87/EC that emphasizes auctioning and benchmarking. Topics covered include distortions that influence firms' propensity to collude and abuse, cartelization, how the State aid provision of EC Competition law guides States to select the least distortive allocation format, grandfathering systems, and State aid derogations. Regarding cartelization, little guidance has been found as to how the joint application of the Articles of the EC Treaty is interpreted in the absence of pre-existing agreements. In addition, grandfathering systems are liable to constitute State aid will Performance Standard Rate (PSR) systems should not. The required level of environmental benefit as a precondition for the granting of aid is lower for a PSR system than for grandfathering. The author concludes that the current jurisprudence is unlikely to prevent Member States from taking measures that create incentives for undertakings to engage in anticompetitive practices.