Access in Primary Education (Norway)

Introducing an employment variable with five levels of educational attainment per capita and employing inequality decomposition, this study addresses three questions. How does labour force vary by education and provinces? How does labour force utilization vary by education and provinces? What are the potential causes of differences? We find that the no‐primary‐education group is more endowed in less‐developed provinces and allocated most unequally among education groups across provinces, despite past universal primary education policies. The senior‐secondary‐education group with the largest labour share is a growing concern due to the lower employment rate and largest interprovincial inequality.

May 2008 Abstract Analysis of poverty in Nicaragua emphasizes the welfare gains from education: non-poor households have higher levels of educational attainment than poor ones (especially in post- primary education), and welfare gains have been associated with higher educational attainment. Despite rather equitable access to primary school, we find that there are substantial inequities in access and quality of preschool and post secondary education between richer and poorer households, between urban and rural areas, and between regions. Furthermore, Nicaragua still falls behind in the Latin America Contexts in primary and secondary education service delivery (both in relation to access and quality). This document is organized in three main sections: the first section quantifies returns to investments on education; the second section analyses constraints and inequities in access to school by socioeconomic level, area of residence, ethnic group and gender; and the third section examines inequalities in education quality. While it is important for Nicaragua to continue to invest in achieving universal primary education, the education system needs to pay attention to improving education quality and expanding access to pres-school and secondary education.

Design and Delivery of a Training Program for Teachers in Primary Education: Interdisciplinary Organization for the Key Competences Training for Young Schoolchildren, from Pre-school Class to Class IV

This study examines the disjuncture between the policy transposition of the Liberal Peace Project (LPP) in South Sudan from the country's local context. It underlines how deep rooted historical exclusion from social welfare services reinforces political exclusion and exacerbates poor civic engagement among different ethnicities in the country causing a constant relapse to violence. The study combines a qualitative review of data from Afrobarometer, the National Democratic Institute, international NGOs, and South Sudan's government reports within depth interviews and participants' observation. The research finds that restricted access to formal education alongside the conservative and orthodox approaches to peacebuilding, which broadly focus on centralised urban political institutions and exclude diverse local needs and preferences, limit citizenship participation to elections and preclude an equitable social order in South Sudan, establishing a continuum of fragile authoritarian peace, institutional peace and constitutional peace. In an emancipatory approach, the study proposes a framework that prioritizes an extended access to primary and post-primary vocational education as a more credible establishment for sustainable civil peace in the country. The LPP by the international community needs to be tailored to enhance the political will of the South Sudan government to extend free primary education access, incentivize primary education with school feeding programmes and to invigorate vocational training curricula. These will yield civil peace dividends, which avert South Sudan's structural source of relapse into violence with sustainable disincentives. Apart from women's empowerment through education and in all spheres of life, the government needs to ensure sustainability by guaranteeing a sustainable future for the present and for returning refugees by reducing the effects of climate change so as to cope with the increasing pressure on natural resources.

This study examined the relationship between education attainment of head of household and household food security in Yatta Sub - County, Kenya. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The target population was 19,349 households. A stratified random sample of 378 households was used in the study. Data were collected using a questionnaire whose return rate was 81.0%. Majority (55.9%) of the households were headed by a male. Most (93.3%) of the heads of the households had formal schooling. Though a high proportion (56.4%) of the households were farmers, majority (53.3%) purchased food from the market. Most (63.5%) of the households were severely food insecure with hunger. It was found that the level of education attainment of head of household and level of food security were significantly related (x2= 84.495; df = 9; p= 0.000). As the education attainment of the head of household increased, the level of household food security also improved. However, it was observed that basic education graduates (primary and secondary education) were struggling to ensure household food security. This was partly explained by skills mismatch that hampered transition from learning to earning, negative attitudes towards informal employment and agriculture, lack of information on careers and job prospects and lack of capital to venture into enterprise creation. The study recommends that the Government should sustain efforts to provide free primary education, free tuition in secondary schools and improved access to postsecondary education considering that advanced levels of education attainment make a difference in households’ food security. Further, there is need for interventions to mitigate skills gap among the basic education graduates. Such interventions include training programmes for out of school adults to increase their adaptability and flexibility to realities of the formal and informal employment sectors including agriculture which is the main source of employment in rural areas.

The quality of education is a major policy challenge facing the Maldives. The country achieved the first generation objective of providing universal access to basic education through rapid expansion of enrollment. As is frequently the case with such countries, the second generation challenge is to provide education of adequate quality. Evidence from a variety of sources shows that education quality in the Maldives is weak, and needs urgent improvement. Learning outcomes in both primary and secondary education are modest. National assessments of learning outcomes at Grade 4 and Grade 7 show that learning levels are unsatisfactory. The low average scores suggest that learning levels in both primary education and lower secondary education are weak. There are several dimensions of education quality which Maldivian policy makers consider to be of vital importance. Among these, the quality of school teachers is central to the improvement of education quality. Hence, the Ministry of Education (MOE) is concerned to develop the skills, motivation and performance of teachers. A second key policy initiative is the establishment of a sound quality assurance framework for the school system. The MOE has developed a quality assurance mechanism, which now needs to be pilot tested, refined and scaled up throughout the country. A third strategic policy initiative is the development of a system of regular national assessments of learning outcomes, which can then feed into policy formulation and program development. These three strategic policy initiatives are discussed in the subsequent sections of this report.

With the world's fourth largest population, Indonesia is experiencing significant growth. Indonesia possesses demographic dividend potential that brings economic opportunities towards becoming a developed country. Human resource preparation is key to successfully harnessing the demographic bonus of 2035. Efforts to improve the quality and accessibility of education are implemented through budget allocation as mandated by the 1945 Constitution. This study aims to analyze the education budget allocation comparison between Indonesia and the ASEAN member countries. This study provides novelty by focusing on comparing the allocation of education budgets between Indonesia and ASEAN countries through a parliamentary perspective to support the achievement of SDGs. The study adopts a qualitative method with Systematic Literature Review by analyzing 83 articles. The findings indicate that education budget allocation in Southeast Asian countries, including Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos, is a crucial focus in ensuring educational quality. Despite increasing budgets annually, challenges such as disparities in educational quality, teacher shortages, and poor infrastructure remain major issues. ASEAN countries employ different approaches to budget allocation, with some focusing on decentralization, subsidies, and public investment. International support, such as that provided by the World Bank in Cambodia and Myanmar, demonstrates a commitment to improving access and quality of education. In Indonesia, budget allocations for primary, secondary, and vocational education should be seen as investments in future human resources, with an emphasis on sustainable allocations. Improvements in diversifying budget programs and comprehensive oversight at the regional level are essential, while budget allocations for higher education and vocational training need significant increases to meet international standards, with a minimum recommendation of 2% of the national budget, according to UNESCO.

La présente étude a pour objet de mettre en exergue l’existence des liens entre le phénomène de pauvreté et les conditions d’accessibilité à l’éducation dans les différentes régions du Cameroun. Il s’agit d’apprécier, à partir des données de l’enquête camerounaise auprès des ménages (ECAM III) réalisée en 2007, l’influence des variables monétaires et non monétaires sur l’accès à l’éducation primaire et secondaire suivant le sexe de l’enfant d’une part et par rapport aux caractéristiques socio démographiques des ménages d’autre part. Les principaux résultats montrent que l’influence des variables monétaires et non monétaires sur l’accessibilité des enfants à l’éducation au Cameroun varie suivant les régions du pays, suivant le sexe de l’enfant et suivant le lieu de résidence des ménages. C’est ainsi que les régions septentrionales sont moins scolarisées que les régions méridionales. La marginalisation des filles au profit des garçons est criante dans les régions septentrionales. Les enfants issus des ménages dirigés par les femmes ont plus de chance d’aller à l’école que ceux des familles dont le chef est un homme. Ces résultats suscitent un certain nombre de recommandations, notamment les campagnes de sensibilisation en faveur de la scolarisation des jeunes filles en particulier dans les régions septentrionales, l’accroissement de l’offre de formation surtout en milieu rural et la construction des établissements scolaires avec internat dans les régions à faible densité de population. Classification JEL : O 15, I 21.

In this article, we examine the relationship between primary school fees and education quality and access over the past forty years in seven sub-Saharan African countries. School fees were introduced as a means for revenue-constrained governments to fund the improvement and expansion of primary education. Recently there has been a move towards their abolition. We find that the introduction of fees decreased primary school enrolment, without achieving significant quality improvements. We also discuss the impact on quality of the major increases in enrolment following the abolition of school fees and identify the government funding shortfall amplified by this policy change.

Access to quality primary education is a critical component of a nation's development, with implications for social equity and economic progress. This study aims to compare educational policies and practices in primary education across multiple countries, focusing on assessing access and equity. Engaging with magazines, articles, or books to gather research data constitutes the qualitative methodology employed in this study. The data collection approach adopted in this research involves utilizing the literature review method. Technical and source triangulation were implemented to ensure the data's validity. The data analysis technique follows the model proposed by Miles and Huberman, encompassing four stages: data collection, data reduction, data display, and drawing conclusions. The findings reveal significant variations in primary education policies and practices across countries. Successful strategies include targeted financial support for marginalized communities, teacher training programs, and curriculum adaptations that address local needs and cultures. This study underscores the importance of examining and learning from the experiences of different countries to improve access to quality primary education and promote equity. The identified successful strategies can inform policymakers, educators, and stakeholders in designing and implementing more effective policies to ensure all children have equal access to quality primary education. The study ultimately contributes to a broader understanding of the global pursuit of equitable and accessible primary education.

This is an Annotation for Transparent Inquiry (ATI) data project. The annotated article can be viewed on the publisher's website. Project Summary This project assesses the impact of democratization on primary school enrollment rates using quantitative data from 1820 to 2010 to estimate difference-in-differences and interrupted time series models of the impact of democratization. It finds that, on average, there is little evidence to support the claim that democratization led to the expansion of primary schooling. The study then unpacks this average result to explain what lies behind the null effect. It finds that democracy can lead to the expansion of primary schooling, but the key condition under which it does—when a majority of the population lacked access to primary schooling before democratization—rarely holds. Indeed, the study documents that, among countries that experienced democratization, the average primary school enrollment rate was already 70% before transitioning to democracy. Although the project does not seek to provide a conclusive answer to why there was so much provision of primary education under non-democracies, the section titled “Primary School Systems Under Non-Democracies” explores several possible answers to help readers entertain the possibility that the provision of primary education may have been high under non-democracies—because this is a counterintuitive finding given the previous literature in political science and economics. With that modest goal in mind, this section surveys existing research in history, sociology, political science, and economics to parse out four common arguments for the provision of primary schooling under non-democratic regimes; provides exploratory quantitative tests for these arguments; and, using online annotations, provides qualitative evidence that illustrates these arguments. Data Generation and Analysis The gathering of qualitative evidence focused on either the founding period of primary education systems or the period of fastest expansion of primary schooling in six non-democratic regimes chosen to have variation across space and over time: Prussia (1750s and 1760s), France (1830s), Chile (1860s), Argentina (1880s), USSR (1930s), and China (1950s). For each case, the author gathered primary and secondary sources in English, Spanish, or French that provided evidence about the rationales used by non-democratic regimes to expand access to primary education. On average five sources per country were analyzed, including: speech transcripts by presidents, ministers of education, and congressmen from parliamentary debates; newspaper and magazines articles, letters, books, memoirs, and other documents written by politicians who participated in education debates; reports written by official government missions from foreign countries that traveled to learn about the selected education systems; official education laws and regulations; books and PhD dissertations specializing on the history of education of these cases. All sources analyzed were obtained from Stanford Libraries, UCSD Libraries, HathiTrust, the Biblioteca Nacional del Maestro in Argentina, or the Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Language limitations implied a greater ability to consult primary sources from Argentina, Chile, and France than from Prussia, the USSR, and China, where reliance on secondary sources was greater. For each source, the author extracted citations that provided evidence of the rationales espoused by non-democratic regimes to provide primary education. Each citation was classified using a common coding scheme based on the type of argument being made for the provision of primary education: molding political values and behaviors, industrialization, military strength, promoting the social mobility of the lower classes, responding to parental demand, staying in vogue with global ideas, or other reasons. A set of 45 citations (out of 150) were identified as “strong” evidence for three types of common arguments for primary education provision under non-democratic regimes: molding political values and behaviors, industrialization, and military strength. The other theorized arguments appeared less often and either lacked strong evidence in the sampled sources (staying in vogue with global ideas, promoting social mobility) or had strong evidence against them (responding to parental demand). Logic of Annotation Online annotations were used to illustrate those arguments for which strong qualitative evidence was found. The citations included in the annotations were chosen so as to provide as clear an illustration of a theoretical argument as possible within a relatively short amount of space (i.e., without requiring readers to read an entire book or parliamentary debate transcript). Analytic notes were used in almost all annotations to offer additional context about a source and its author, and to specify the interpretations made from a citation or set of citations.

As has been mentioned, there are still millions of children without access to primary education. Despite the optimism of programs such as the UN Millennium Development Goals and their objective of having all children attending school by 2015, some, such as Irina Bokova, who serves as the top representative of UNESCO in Paris, has said that this is “impossible” to achieve by the initial timeline that has been set (Coughlan, 2013). Other organizations, such as the Institute for Security Studies and the Frederick S. Pardee Center for International Futures, wrote as early as 2011 that “the very low starting point in enrolment levels for many African countries has made the goal of universal primary education by 2015 unreachable,” and thus, they have argued that by modeling successful programs, the hope is to reach universal primary education in Africa by 2030, and overall universal education five years later (Gehring et al., 2011). Nevertheless, Bokova did stress the great strides have been made to reduce the number of children without access to primary education. Furthermore, she pointed out that the world has done a better job of focusing not only on the number of children attending classes but also on the quality of schooling that they are receiving (Coughlan, 2013).

Sustainable Development Goals, like previous Millennium Development Goals, put strong emphasis on the inclusive and quality education for all by 2030 and directed all the nation states to make concerted efforts to ensure this. Many developing countries after the endorsement of time-bound global goals regarding education has resulted in remarkable changes in their national education policy directions by making provisions of free and compulsory education for a stipulated period. However, even today, when the global development agenda is emphasizing inclusive and quality education for all at all levels, the goal of universal primary education remains elusive for many developing countries. The aim of this study was to analyze educational policy changes and progress in universal primary education in India and Sri Lanka under the influence of global policy agenda. India and Sri Lanka are two important countries in South Asian region and both are quite proactive in their efforts towards universalization of primary education. With the help of trend analysis method, it has been observed tremendous progress has been observed in the expansion of access of primary education in these countries. However, the results indicate that the performance of Sri Lanka in primary education is far better than India and India can learn a lot from the experiences of Sri Lanka. But, the high number of out of school children and poor learning outcomes in both the countries need a radical shift in the focus of the policy planning in these countries. The study is quite critical to highlight the glaring gaps in the provision of education for all in these countries and experiences of these countries can provide instructive lessons for other countries struggling with the goal of education for all. Keywords: Universal Primary Education, Education for All, Educational Policy, Globalization, South Asia. DOI: 10.7176/JEP/11-8-04 Publication date: March 31 st 2020

A System Dynamics Model for Improving Primary Education Enrollment in a Developing Country The system dynamics approach is a holistic way of solving problems in real-time scenarios. This is a powerful methodology and computer simulation modeling technique for framing, analyzing, and discussing complex issues and problems. System dynamics modeling is often the background of a systemic thinking approach and has become a management and organizational development paradigm. This paper proposes a system dynamics approach for studying the importance of infrastructure facilities on the quality of primary education system in a developing nation. The model is built using the Cross Impact Analysis (CIA) method of relating entities and attributes relevant to the primary education system in any given community. The CIA model enables us to predict the effects of infrastructural facilities on the community's access of primary education. This may support policy makers to take more effective actions in campaigns that attempt to improve literacy.

The importance of the problem is determined by the fact that since the time India had got its independence the problem of poverty in the country remains to be a matter of serious concern. Social inequality in the researched country in a certain way affects its system of education. Therefore, the main aim of this article is to describe the state policy of primary and secondary education of the Republic of India in relation to the poorest segments of society at the turn of XX-XXI centuries and to identify its main results. The leading method of the study of this problem is the historical-comparative. This method allows to compare the data of governmental programs in primary and secondary education among the poorest segments of the population on the basis of historical sources and identify the dynamics of growth or decline of literacy among the Indian population. The article presents the results suggestive of the effect of economic, cultural and mental processes which took place in the Republic of India at the turn of XX-XXI centuries on the level of accessibility of public education and literacy of the Indians. Moreover, particular features of the most important national programs in the sphere of primary and secondary education were disclosed in the 8th and 9th Five Year Plans. The content of this article may be useful for the study of the institutional history of education as well as for contemporary public debate on the role and effectiveness of governmental programs in primary and secondary education.