Abreviaturas por letras sobrescritas de cartas setecentista

A Cluster of (Old) Portuguese Derivational Suffixes:<i>-ece, -ice, -ez(a),</i>Viewed in Relation to their Spanish Counterparts

The 18th century was important for Swedish linguistic development. Foreign lexical influence and orthographical standardization were intensely discussed, and the vocabulary was codified in several dictionaries, all bilingual. In this article, two questions of 18th century lexicography are studied in two influential dictionaries: Serenius (1741) and Sahlstedt (1773). The first question concerns the inclusion of Latin and Swedish legal lexical items in the lemma list; the second question examines the lexicographical treatment of the lexical item and the division into senses. 40 lexical items with a legal sense were extracted from the first two judicial handbooks written in Swedish (Ralamb 1674 and Kloot 1676). As a benchmark, Dalin (1850–55) was used; a monolingual dictionary representing the period when lexicography became fully developed in Sweden. Two modern dictionaries are also used as a comparison, SO (2009) and NSEOP (2018). The results indicate that both Serenius and Sahlstedt were loyal to the ideas of their time. They included only Latin lexical items that were already fully incorporated in Swedish and relevant for general dictionaries. The judicial senses are also discerned in the articles, but sense indicators are used in an inconsistent way and examples get mixed up. The lexicographers also lean heavily on Latin as meta language.

The aim of this doctoral thesis is to partially describe the Brazilian Pomeranian (BP) lexicon with a focus on frequent nouns and verbs in the Pommersche Korpora Expansion – PK-E, a set of authentic samples we collected during previous research (M.A., 2014-2016). The specific aims are: (i) to analyse whether the nouns contain innovative items through contact with the Portuguese language and whether they contain traditional items originating from European Pomeranian and (ii) to identify verb conjugations, their combinations and uses within PK-E. Our study contains two interconnected hypotheses: (i) the contrast between the reference corpora and PK-E provides parameters to identify whether the phonetic variation of type P (pomeranian), as in Schwien [ʃviːn], Noogel [ˈnɔːxl] , Hoogel] [ˈhɔːxl] in relation to the phonetics of A (Standard German) as in Schwein [ʃvaɪ̯n], Nagel [ˈnaːɡl̩] , Hagel [ˈhaːɡl̩], indicates the existence of a systematic pattern of phonetic difference that is not random and does not generate different morphemes nor refer to the same lexical items. This recurring fact leads us to conjecture that the difference of Pomeranian compared to Standard German is mainly phonetic, and not lexical. Comparisons between Brazilian Pomeranian, European Pomeranian and Standard German may elucidate the lexical proximities, (ii) the partial descriptions and the analysis of the samples in light of theories and grammar of Low German in conjunction with the methodology-approach of corpus analysis are sufficient for the linguistic classification of Pomeranian within the Germanic language group and the subgroup of Plattdeutsch/Niederdeutsch. Our theoretical framework is anchored in authors from Dialectology (THUN, 2010; ALTENHOFEN, 2013, 2019; ALTENHOFEN; STEFFEN; THUN, 2018), Historical Linguistics (GRIMM, 1819, 1822; PLEMPE-CHRISTIANSSEN, 1965; MASIP, 2003; KELLNER, 2002; SYLLA, 2013), Lexicography (HERRMANN-WINTER, 1998, 2013; VOLLMER, 2008; SASS; THIES, 2021), Lexicology (BARBOSA, 1991; VILELA, 1994; BIDERMAN, 2001; ABBADE, 2012; ZAVAGLIA; WELKER, 2013; FERRAZ, 2016; POSTMA, 2018; GAGELMANN, 2015, 2019), Morphology (EISENBERG, 1998; ENGEL, 2004; ROMÃO 2018), Sociolinguistics (WEINREICH, 1953; BRIGHT, 1974; GROSJEAN, 1982; GUMPERZ, 1982; SIEGEL, 1985; HEYE, 1986; BOKAMBA, 1988; CHRISTEN, 1997; AUER, 1999; VON BORSTEL, 2011; LADILOVA, 2015), Corpus Linguistics (TEUBERT, 1996; TOGNINI-BONELLI, 2001; PERINI, 2006; LEMNITZER; ZINSMEISTER, 2006; DIAS, 2017; OLIVEIRA, 2019; ASSUNÇÃO; ARAÚJO, 2019, ALVES; OTTAIANO, 2020). Methodological procedures involved the compilation of a Low-German reference corpus, the Plattdeutsche Referenzkorpus – PRK; identification of nouns and verb conjugations through clusters, collocates and patterns generated in WordSmith Tools 7.0, elaboration of analytic-systematic tables containing phonetic transcriptions, parallel comparison with German and translated example sentences, consultation of old dictionaries, a historical corpus and a North German regional corpus, which include data in Old Low German and High German, and other corpora of Standard German. At the end, we organized the results, performed analyses and comparisons with extensive samples analysis, tested our hypotheses and were able to describe simple, compound, plural, diminutive nouns and results of contact with the Portuguese language. We also managed to recover, through the methodology of Corpus Linguistics, the conjugations for 23 verbs in 8 different verb tenses.

Antonio de' Mazzinghi: An algebraist of the 14th century

This study investigates lexical cohesion in four selected song lyrics from Maher Zain's second studio album Forgive Me (2012): Forgive Me, I Love You So, Number One for Me, and My Little Girl. Adopting Halliday &amp; Hasan (1976) lexical cohesion framework, which classifies lexical cohesion into reiteration and collocation, as the theoretical basis, this study identifies seven sub-types of lexical cohesion as adopted in subsequent linguistic research: repetition, synonym, antonym, superordinate, meronym, hyponym, and collocation. The data source of this study are the written lyrics of the four selected songs, obtained from official lyric publications. Data were collected through systematic documentation by reading each lyric carefully and identifying all lexical items that demonstrate cohesive relations. The data were analyzed following Creswell &amp; Creswell (2017) qualitative analysis steps: organizing the data, reading through all data, coding each lexical item by its cohesion subtype, generating categories, and reporting findings. The validity of the analysis was ensured through careful re-reading and cross-checking of each datum against the theoretical criteria established by (Halliday &amp; Hasan, 1976). The analysis identified 238 lexical cohesion items. Collocation emerged as the most dominant type with 71 items (29.8%), followed by repetition (56 items; 23.5%), synonym (28 items; 11.8%), hyponym (26 items; 10.9%), antonym (23 items; 9.7%), meronym (19 items; 8.0%), and superordinate (15 items; 6.3%). Among the four songs, My Little Girl yields the highest number of lexical cohesion items (66 items; 27.7%). The dominance of collocation reflects the formulaic devotional register characteristic of Islamic nasheed, distinguishing Maher Zain’s lyrics from mainstream pop music where repetition typically dominates. These findings confirm that Maher Zain’s song lyrics operate as linguistically cohesive discourses that employ diverse lexical mechanisms to achieve semantic unity and emotional impact.

ABSTRACTThe article introduces the national library as the central national cultural institution and presents its place in the awareness of the Slovenes. It also identifies the reasons for the attitude of the Slovene lay and professional communities towards this institution. The national library is defined as a generic term and linear quantitative comparisons between the national libraries of the world are being questioned. The historical development of the Slovene national library is briefly described from its original conception of carrying out the national functions in the 19th century until its first official recognition after World War II. The current functions of the national library are presented and there is also a description of the way it has undertaken to develop the Slovene library system.

This paper presents two kinds of new evidence for dating the ballad ”Southeast Fly the Peacocks”. The Japanese scholar Takagi Mazakau has shown that the tonal prosody of Recent Style poetry began to take shape during the end of the 5th century and the beginning of the 6th. The present author shows that lines 1-10, 236-249, and 342-355 of the ballad by and large conform to Resent Style prosody, and therefore could not have been written earlier than 450 A. D. The second part of the paper discusses ten grammatical or lexical items. It was shown that these items, as used in the ballad, contain innovative features unattested elsewhere before the middle of the 3rd century. The overall conclusion is that the ”Southeast Fly the Peacocks” was written during the 5th or 6th century, about two centuries later than the traditional date of 196-219 A. D.

The present study constitutes an exploratory analysis of the use of the Catalan constructions anar (‘to go’) + adjective and estar (‘to be’) + adjective in writing during the 19th and 20th centuries. In modern Catalan, anar and estar can be used before an adjective as copulas, with an identical or similar meaning (e.g., en Joan va begut, en Joan esta begut ‘John is drunk’). Both constructions show evidence of being highly grammaticalized and are apparently found in free variation rather than complementary distribution. However, a closer approach seems to reveal certain underlying linguistic factors that might be informing such contrast, specifically within the semantic-pragmatic sphere. This is here explored using the narrow theory of grammaticalization (Hopper & Traugott 2003), a multistage process by which lexical (i.e., contextual) items eventually become functional (i.e., grammatical) over time. A corpus-based search was conducted using the electronic version of the Corpus Textual Informatitzat de la Llengua Catalana (CTILC), which comprises literary and non-literary texts published between 1833 and 1988. Anar + adjective and estar + adjective tokens were obtained from a sample of texts, then sorted into four different groups corresponding to century halves. The search results from the corpus were randomly sorted in terms of genre and date and, from these, the top 250 tokens on the list of results for each construction were selected and subsequently analyzed. Whereas few instances of both constructions are found overall in the first half of the 19th century, estar already prevails over anar when followed by an adjective. During the first half of the 20th century, however, this trend starts to be reversed. This suggests the possibility that anar and estar might have traditionally been found in free variation in a number of contexts, with 19th century texts showing a clear preference for estar.

: A música popular é um artefato midiático através do qual são tramitados socialmente conceitos, valores, atitudes e estratégias de identidade individual e coletiva. Através das letras, podemos refletir sobre assuntos importantes, nos emocionamos, reconhecemos a uma identidade cultural. Na música universal, temas que vão desde o amor à exploração do trabalho se presentificam, e a identidade dos imigrantes fica de fora do escopo temático das canções. Este trabalho é uma relação entre as áreas de Língua Inglesa, uma vez que todas as canções estudadas são deste idioma, é de Língua Portuguesa, na questão da interpretação e análise de construção do sentido. Assim, para compreender um pouco mais da identidade dos imigrantes e demais aspectos sociais elucidados pela linguagem, esta pesquisa se propôs a investigar como se dá a construção de sentido das canções que trazem à luz o universo do povo imigrante. Esta pesquisa tem por natureza ser qualitativa. Em primeiro lugar, investigaremos as dentre as mais tocadas do cenário pop internacional nos últimos 20 anos que elucidam, de alguma maneira, a identidade dos imigrantes. Inicialmente, investigaremos canções de sucesso mundial, de grandes artistas ou bandas reconhecidas internacionalmente, que são facilmente reconhecidas pelo público. Para análise da construção de sentido, privilegiaremos o domínio conceptual básico do frame. Estes tipos frame são associados a expressões ou a itens lexicais e, ao se relacionarem com outros frames, auxiliam na construção do significado. Ao associarmos os itens lexicais “flores”, “choro” e “caixão”, elucidamos o frame de velório, por exemplo. A partir dos critérios definidos pela pesquisadora bolsista, que buscou pelas músicas mais tocadas na plataforma YouTube, chegamos às seguintes canções para compor o corpus desta pesquisa: a) Immigrant Song, Led Zeppelin; b) American Oxygen, Rihanna; c) Prayer of the Refugee, Rise Against, d) Immigration Man, Crosby &amp; Nash, e) Ellis Islans, Mary Black, f) America, Neil Diamond, g) Immigration Blues, Chris Rea, h) City of Immigrants, Steve Earle e i) The Refugee, U2. Tomando como base os elementos analisados, é possível afirmar que a figura imigrante é uma figura submissa a condições sociais e de gênero. É um ser que não tem o domínio de seu próprio destino e que aguarda sempre a chegada de outra pessoa, pela indefinição tonal, que espessa toda uma ampla gama de transferências interpretativas, colaborando densa e criticamente para o pensamento recente sobre imigração no país.

Although the opinion piece is a speech genre listed in Base Nacional Comum Curricular – BNCC (Brasil, 2018), it seems to be more widely studied in the late grades of elementary school and in high school than in the early grades of elementary school. Experience shows that teachers prefer teaching text types (such as narrative or descriptive text) to the study of genre, mainly the argumentative ones, in the early grades of elementary school. This may be the reason why students of the late grades of elementary school find it hard to understand and write argumentative text. In this context, this research aimed at addressing opinion piece as speech genre by means of retextualization of news, enabling students to properly understand and write an opinion piece. The research was conducted with 17 fifth-grade students (eleven of which participated actively in the study) from a public school in Santa Maria (DF). The methodology was grounded in the principles of action research and qualitative data analysis. The action research involved educational workshops as a teaching strategy. Highlighting text and genre as core concepts to Portuguese language teaching, this research resonates with similar studies that support interactive learning based on the plurality of discourse. It also considers opinion pieces and news to be part of the daily life of students and retextualization as a habit in social discourse practice. The assignment that is proposed in this research put students in contact with different opinion pieces and news. It helped students to broaden what they know about the genre and improve their arguing skills. Considering the objectives, this research drew on authors who deal with text and discourse concerning the teaching of Portuguese language, such as Dell’Isola (2007), Geraldi (1993, 2010, 2012), Koch (1987, 2016), and Marcuschi (2008, 2010). Based on the literature, an assignment on retextualization strategy was proposed. The research also developed a handbook for approaching retextualization workshop in fifth-grade class. This handbook is intended to provide fifth-grade class teachers with a teaching resource which helps them run workshops on writing skills development. It is believed to contribute to teaching practice regarding strategies for coping with writing and re-writing challenges students face. Once the assignment was finished, results were analysed. The activity was checked against the objectives, to assess the need for adjustments. The results show that most of students were able to understand the process for retextualizing news into opinion pieces, allowing for different assignments on text and discourse. The educational workshops proved to be effective in teaching Portuguese language, since they cover many instances of social interaction. Finally, this research is expected to help both Portuguese language teachers to plan classes in opinion piece to the early grades of elementary school and students to develop their discourse skills, argumentation, critical thought, and decision making wherever they live.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the space-time of the schools of Parana / Brazil used as sites of indoctrination of a society surrounded by slave ideas that permeated the attitudes of such community related to Education. Social History investigations also show that the state elite influenced and imposed what it believed to be the exemplary standard to be spoken in a community under construction in the city of Morretes, Parana. Methodologically, this study was based on the transcription, the critical edition and the analysis of manuscripts of the 19th century referring to the area of Education. The objective was to verify the space-time conditions of the physical facilities reserved for the area of schooling to understand why Parana and Brazil still do not have an education that produces effective results. A brief study of the origins of linguistic tools such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, glossaries, and vocabularies revealed the hardships faced on the routes of Lexicography and Lexicology of the Portuguese Language.

In 1961, when the Krasinski Palace (the Palace of the Republic) was rebuilt, it was given to the National Library's use. All the departments of the Division of Special Collections were placed in the Palace, including the map department. In 1963 the government made a decision to construct a new building for the National Library of Poland. In the beginning it was planned to move all the collections from the buildings, which they had occupied before, placed in three different districts of Warsaw (including the Division of Special Collections) to the new National Library's building. Its construction started in 1977. But during the works on the site and the move of the collections of books and periodicals dating from the 19th and 20th centuries, it became obvious that those departments, and in particular, their collections, took up too much space, and there was no room for them all. So new plans of enlarging the new building of the National Library were made, but the economic crisis which we are now going through in our country has postponed its development until the distant future. Until now, there is still a remaining part of the Division of Special Collections in the Krasinski Palace, the departments which preserve collections of manuscripts, early printed books, graphics and drawings. Special grand exhibitions are also held in the beautiful baroque rooms there.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the fall of marital fertility in Tasmania, the second settled Australian colony, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In this thesis I use quantitative and qualitative data to investigate when marital fertility fell, how it fell—that is, was the fall due to starting, stopping or spacing behaviours— and why it fell at this time. In looking at why fertility fell, I examine how my findings support theories of why fertility fell during the fertility transition. This study used digitised 19th century Tasmanian birth registration data plus many other sources to reconstitute birth histories of couples marrying in Tasmania in 1860, 1870, 1880 and 1890. This provides an individual-level data base which allows the use of both bivariate and multivariate methods of analysis. The qualitative analysis looks at the historical context of Australia, and of Tasmania specifically, and at historical sources such as witness statements from the 1903 NSW Royal Commission into the Decline in the Birth Rate, articles and items from the late 19th and early 20th century Tasmanian newspapers, stories about couples in the marriage cohorts and two diaries of upper class Tasmanian women. The thesis concludes that fertility started to decline in the late 1880s and the fertility decline became well established during the 1890s. The fall in fertility in late 19th century Tasmania was primarily due to the practice of stopping behaviour in the 1880 and 1890 cohorts, although birth spacing was also used as a strategy to limit fertility by the 1890 cohort. Since the thesis provides evidence to support most of the prominent theories of fertility transition, I conclude that the fertility transition was an integral part of the broader social and economic change that occurred in this period of history.

The lexical item -ihi~aihi in Messapic epigraphy poses a significant challenge for scholars, functioning as a vital grammatical and semantic component in inscriptions. This article seeks to reassess the role of -ihi, suggesting it may function as an interjection or a reflection of -i rather than merely as a genitive marker. By offering a reinterpretation of -ihi, the study aims to establish a new framework for the fragmentation, analysis, and interpretation of Messapic inscriptions. This fresh perspective will be explored through detailed examination of selected examples, incorporating internal-comparative analysis, methods of ‘frame semantics’ (according to Ch.K. Fillmor and S. Marchesi- ni), linguistic anthropology, and the hermeneutic method. Initially identified in the 19th century as a genitive ending, -ihi has garnered significant scholarly at- tention as a pivotal element in text fragmentation, serving both as a marker and a guiding principle thereof. However, persistent debates have arisen regarding its exclusive function as a genitive marker, with some scholars contending that it solely denotes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. This dichotomy has posed chal- lenges in conceptualizing word fragmentation beyond the grammatical function of -ihi, fostering a geni- tive-centric perspective that has rendered Messapic somewhat enigmatic, even labeled as a ‘phantom lan- guage’. The assertion that the majority of Messapic vocabulary consists of nouns ending in -ihi has intensi- fied scholarly interest, prompting deeper investigations into its nature. Yet, despite its declared function as genitive, exploring alternative roles for this lexical item, particularly in the context of potential Illyrian or Proto-Albanian origins, remains largely unexplored territory. Considering the conceivable historical inter- play of -ihi~aihi within the context of Illyrian – Proto-Albanian &gt; Classical Albanian, an etymological explo- ration seems justified, especially from an internal-comparative perspective. An examination of the classical Albanian tradition, which predominantly employs the suffix -h at the end of words terminating with vowels, such as in the case of Buzuku (1555), suggests a possible connection between -hi and this suffix, perhaps as a post-vocalic resonance rather than solely a genitive marker. Fur- thermore, parallels between Messapic genitive structures and Proto-Albanian remnants, which persisted into the post-Messapic era and even into modern Albanian, hint at a broader linguistic continuity. While -ihi undoubtedly aids in text segmentation, serving both as a word ending and occasionally as an emotional interjection, its classification solely as a genitive marker oversimplifies its linguistic signif- icance. Examples highlighting the interpretive paradoxes surrounding -ihi underscore the need for a nu- anced examination of its multifaceted roles, including its potential as a reflection of the -i ending or an in- terjection mimicking mourning practices, particularly in funerary contexts. The efficacy of -ihi in formal text segmentation notwithstanding, the question of its true linguistic function persists: is it primarily a genitive ending, a reflection of the -i ending, or an interjection? This inqui- ry demands thorough investigation, especially considering its implications for understanding Messapic lan- guage and culture. By delving into these complexities, this article aims to illuminate the enigmatic nature of -ihi and its broader significance in the study of Messapic epigraphy and Albanian linguistic evolution.

The article examines the indigenous vocabulary of the northwestern Pamir languages, the genetic commonality of which has been established on the basis of comparison at all language levels. The paper presents data on the development of vocabulary in these languages, taking into account their history and mutual interaction, as well as the influence of other languages, primarily Tajik. Interesting lexical and semantic facts are revealed, offering a new perspective on the relationship between etymologies of words originating from a single Indo-European root on the one hand, and modern vocabulary items on the other. The article examines word-formation processes and identifies certain words that are formed from the same Proto-Iranian roots common to the Yazghulami language and the Shughnani-Rushani group. These lexical items are constructed with the help of various formants, such as the feminine suffix *-ā and the suffix *-(a)ka, which was productive in the Shughnani-Rushani group. In addition, based on various mental associations demonstrated by speakers of Shughnani and Yazghulami, lexical items are identified that derive from various Proto-Iranian roots denoting movement and state, such as those signifying “to go, to walk” and “to become, to get started, turn out to be”; these evolved through the long-term polarization of the expression of active and passive state by verbs denoting movement. The hypothesis is proposed that word-formation processes in these languages were active up to and throughout the 19th century. The paper emphasizes that in the current era of globalization, with the prevailing influence of mainstream literary languages, the lexical system of minority languages needs to be studied and documented with extra rigor.