About the Metaphorical and Proverbial Meaning of the Verb νυκτιπλοέω

The role of the right hemisphere (RH) in metaphor comprehension is still controversial. Numerous neuroimaging studies have found that conventionality, sentential context, and task demand can influence the involvement of the RH in metaphor processing. The current meta-analysis used foci from 17 original functional magnetic resonance imaging studies to identify what factors modulate the involvement of the RH in metaphor processing. Activation likelihood estimation was used for quantification. We focused on the contrast of metaphorical meaning processing versus literal meaning processing and calculated the meta-analysis effects when (1) metaphorical meaning is conventional, (2) metaphorical meaning is novel, (3) metaphorical and literal meaning are presented in words, (4) metaphorical and literal meaning are presented in sentential context, (5) task is valence judgment, and (6) task is semantic relatedness judgment. The results indicated that the RH only showed significant effects in metaphor processing when the metaphorical meaning is novel, when metaphorical meaning is presented in sentential context, and when the task is semantic relatedness judgment. The effects were located in right fronto-temporal regions, including inferior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, insula, superior temporal gyrus, and middle temporal gyrus. These results suggest that conventionality, contextual complexity, and task demand can modulate the effect of figurativeness and influence the involvement of RH in metaphor comprehension. The main role of the RH in metaphor processing is related with activating broad semantic fields and integrating concepts that may have distant semantic relations, and hence provide support for the view that the RH is responsible for processing coarse semantic information in language comprehension.

WAGGONER, JOHN E.; MESSE, MIRIAM J.; and PALERMO, DAVID S. Grasping the Meaning of Metaphor: Story Recall and Comprehension. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1985, 56, 1156-1166. Children's ability to recall and explain the meanings of metaphors was investigated. Metaphors were embedded in stories at the Reaction or Outcome positions using a story grammar structural form. Recall of metaphors was equal to recall of literal statements with comparable meanings by 7-, 9-, and 11-yearold children. Recall was better if the statements were in the Outcome node of the story than it was if they were in the Reaction node. Probes for the meaning of the metaphors, however, revealed equal comprehension of metaphors in both positions. Metaphors had no differential effect on recall of subsequent parts of the story. The results are discussed in terms of the relations between context and the construction of meaning for both literal and figurative language.

This research was conducted to analyse the denotative and connotative meaning of Indonesian sexist metaphors. The metaphors were collected from various sources, such as online sources, Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI), song lyrics, poems, movies, and newspaper. There were two research questions formulated as follows: 1) What are the Indonesian sexist metaphors? and 2) What are the denotative and connotative meaning of the sexist metaphors? The method of this research was qualitative method, specifically content analysis. This method has two sources, they are primary and secondary sources. The primary source was the metaphors found in various sources. The secondary sources were theories of metaphor, denotative and connotative meaning, and sexist language. The metaphors were analysed using Lakoff and Johnson’s theory (1980) and the meaning of the metaphor was analysed using Parera’s theory (2004). In identifying the sexist in the metaphor, this study used the sexist language theory from Mills (1995). The results of this research showed that there were 32 Indonesian sexist metaphors, 16 of which belonged to female and the other 16 to male. Each metaphor had both connotative and denotative meanings. Based on the findings, it could be concluded that Indonesian language has sexist metaphors for both male and female.

This study aimed to describe language symbols having wider meaning, metaphoric meaning, and socio-cultural background of HAMKA’s biography novel. The method used was descriptive qualitative. Findings of this study showed that the language symbols consisted of: ikon, indek, and simbol; aspect of meaning consisted of conceptual and metaphoric meaning. Metaphoric meaning was reflected in rethorical utterance. Out of 18 rethotical utterances, there were 12 rhetorical utterances which contained klimaks, Antithesis, Apostrof, Seruan, Hiperbola, Litotes, Simile, Metonimi, Ironi, Paradoks, Personifikasi, and Pertanyaan Retoris. Based on analysis, metaphoric and rhetorical meaning showed socio-cultural background of society which tended to reveal personal interpretation and subjective feeling indirectly.

Metaphor is a cognitive process that enables people to make mental mapping across distinct conceptual domains. The present study investigated metaphorical and literal meaning access in metaphor comprehension, and the effects of working memory load and mental imagery on metaphor comprehension. Three sentence priming experiments were conducted and the results showed that the literal meaning of a metaphor was accessed faster than the metaphorical meaning, but metaphorical meaning could be accessed as quickly as literal meaning if there was more cognitive resource involved. These findings indicated that the literal meaning of a metaphor is accessed first in the early stage of metaphor comprehension, and working memory load plays an important role in the process. The study didn’t find any significant effect of ima-geability on metaphor comprehension; however, the results implied the metaphors with low imageability need more working memory load to understand. The implication for natural language processing of the computer science was discussed.

Metaphor is a linguistic form usually used in literature genre, especially poem or lyric of songs. The meaning of metaphor is contradictory to its literal form, therefore, it needs to be analyzed to construct the meaning. This way is very important to translate metaphors properly rather than literally. The Book of Psalm is a part of The Bible consisting of poems, prayers, song, hymns and praises in which metaphors are frequently used. One of them is rock metaphor to describe an image of God. The purpose of this article to construct meaning of rock metaphor in Psalm by adopting mapping method and providing cultural and historical background.

This paper discusses regarding the types and meaning of metaphor towards AKB48's song Tsugi no Ashiato by AKB48. The purpose of this study is to understand the meaning and types of metaphor in a few song lyrics using Lakoff and Johnson's theory. This research method is qualitative descriptive. In order to collect the data, a total of 15 songs and a form of word or phrase that is contained of metaphor are needed. The collected data will be analayzed into 3 types of metaphors; structural, oriental, and ontological.

Pitaruah Ayah is one of the works of Sanggar Balerong Jakarta. Pitaruah Ayah is a message and advice that contains the teachings of life, both values ​​, and norms that apply in the life of Minangkabau people. The advice conveyed in the Pitaruah Ayah uses a lot of metaphorical languages where the most dominant one is a metaphor. Metaphor is a figurative language that compares one thing to another. This study aims to identify and describe the meaning and function of metaphors in Pitaruah Ayah. The method used in collecting data is the observation method with the advanced technique of uninvolved conversation observation. Furthermore, the identify method is used namely the referential and translational method. The results of the study show that the meaning of metaphor in Pitaruah Ayah is positive connotative and negative connotative. Of the two meanings, the most common meaning is positive connotative. Then, the metaphorical functions found in the work include directive and assertive functions.

The article presents an exposition of a new DEM for describing and lexicographic fixating of metaphor semantics (DEM is differential empirical model). It is developed in Voronezh scientific theoretical and linguistic school of the Dagestan psycholinguistic circle at the Dagestan Federal Research Center of the RAS and the Laboratory of Philology and Cultural Studies Integrated Research Institute of the RAS. The study of the meanings of metaphors in accordance based on the DEM is carried out according to an algorithm consisting of two basic and one optional stages. The first basic stage involves pilot experiments. In order to form the initial list of metaphors for their use as stimuli in psycholinguistic experiments, and a vocabulary for the dictionary, it is planned to conduct pilot experiments to identify metaphors that are relevant for native speakers. The second basic stage involves basic experiments. After the semantic interpretation of the integral associative field of stimuli, the semantic components (semes) and meanings (sememes) of metaphors are identified. The semes are differentiated by age (age semantics), gender (gender semantics), social parameters (social semantics), ethnocultural (ethno-semantics) parameters. The third stage (optional) involves data verification experiments. The result of the research will be used for compiling the Differential Dictionary of Metaphors, which will consist of two parts: 1. Associative fields of metaphors (direct associative dictionary). 2. Psychological meanings of metaphors.

Conventional metaphors such as early bird are interpreted rather fast and efficiently. This is so because they might be stored as lexicalized, non-compositional expressions. In a previous study, employing a maze task, we showed that, after reading metaphors (John is an early bird so he can …), participants took longer and were less accurate in selecting the appropriate word (attend) when it was paired with a literally-related distractor (fly) rather than an unrelated one (cry). This suggests that the literal meaning of conventional metaphors is awakened or made available immediately after their metaphorical interpretation. But does the literal meaning remain available further downstream during sentence comprehension? In two experiments also employing a maze task, we examined whether the awakening effect can be obtained when there is a medium (6 to 8 words) and a large (11 to 13 words) distance between the metaphor and lexical choice. Results indicated that the metaphor awakening effect persists but decreases as word distance increases. An analysis of our data based on a GPT model showed that our maze effects could not be attributed to target predictability. Overall, our results suggest that the literal meaning of a metaphor is accessed and remains available for about three seconds, fading as the sentence unfolds over time. The results support a model of metaphor comprehension that postulates the availability of both literal and metaphoric content in the course of sentence processing.

This chapter examines the ways by which the meaning of Salem's metaphor shifted during the American Civil War and Reconstruction years as Northern commentators adopted it to marginalize their own radical factions. The meaning of the metaphor during this period emphasized the intolerance and bigotry of the Puritans. The wartime use of this rhetorical strategy by both sides of the Civil War severely damaged the old schoolbook image of the Puritan as a symbol within national iconography and gave way to the infinitely less complex Pilgrim of Plymouth Colony.

When Is Metaphor? The Idea of Understanding in Theories of Metaphor

Problem in this research is on a metaphor in a novel Tenun Biru work Ugi Agustono: a stylistic study. Problem of this research are focused on investigating the form, function and meaning of metaphors found in a novel Tenun Biru. There are two benefits of this research namely theoretical and practical benefits and this research use a qualitative method as well as descriptive method. This research using the theory of stylistic pertaining to style of language (figure) to get better results in analyzing form, function and meaning metaphor, as of theory of stylistic considered relevant to inspect figure of a metaphor in a novel. Thus this research get the result of a metaphor comprising a antropormorfic metaphor, sinestic metaphor, abstract into concrete metaphor, dead metaphor, and the life metaphor. This study aims to examine the function and meaning of metaphors in the novel Tenun Biru. Consequently, this research provides both theoretical and practical benefits by employing a qualitative research method with a descriptive approach. The study utilizes stylistic theory, which relates to language style (figurative language), to achieve better results in analyzing the forms, functions, and meanings of metaphors. Stylistic theory is considered relevant for studying metaphors in the novel. Furthermore, the functions and meanings of metaphors include informational, expressive, directive, and phatic functions and meanings. Thus, this research identifies the functions and meanings of metaphors used by the author in crafting a literary work in the form of a novel, as metaphors are employed as comparisons to analogize events that serve as the focus of this study.

Early research on the first language acquisition of figurative language indicated that figurative language comprehension and production skills develop relatively late, while recent studies contest this view. This study explores early production of metaphorical (e.g., shark meaning a rapacious crafty person) and metonymic (e.g., house meaning an organisation) meanings in English polysemous nouns and verbs by using the Braunwald corpus, which tracks a single child’s speech from the age of 1 year, 5 months to 7 years. We explore the initial production of these meanings, with respect to the age, order of acquisition and part of speech (noun vs. verb). Our study shows that children start using figurative meanings at a much earlier age than previously thought. In this early stage, metonymic meanings emerge earlier, while metaphorical meanings come a few months later. These findings challenge prior beliefs that children only develop figurative language skills at 3 years of age and show that it is not only the pre-figurative skills that develop early but also the production of very conventional types of figurative meaning, which might not necessarily require the completed development of the complex set of cognitive skills necessary for cross-domain comparison.

Idiom, being an indispensable constituent of language, is the quintessence of the erudition. Every civilization has its own characteristics on the ground that there are some discrepancies in history, geography, customs, etc., among divergent sovereign states. Therefore, it is unambiguous that there subsists divergences in metaphorical objects and its implication of animal idioms among distinctive erudition. This paper attempts to compare and contrast English and Chinese animal idioms from its metaphorical objects and meanings and they can be categorized into four types. It is widely acknowledged that some animal idioms have equivalent connotations in culture. However, the majority of them have diverse implications among distinctive countries. On this basis, many exemplars are cited to make clear translation strategies of Chinese animals idioms. The author will interpose several interpretation principles a. Equivalent Translation, Reserve Image; b. Corresponding Translation, Change Image; c. Compromising Translation, Abandon Image. The author expects these translation principles will provide some constructive clues for translators. Here the author will mainly illustrate the translation strategies of idioms that have same metaphorical objects and maintain different metaphorical meanings as well as idioms of metaphorical vacancies on the basis of the comparative study on Chinese and English Animals idioms.