Abomasal Nematodes of Goat and In Vitro Evaluation of Anthelmintic Resistance in Arba Minch Zuria District, South Ethiopia

Background. Male involvement is an important determinant of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. However, male involvement in prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Ethiopia is not well known. Objectives. To assess male partners involvement in prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and associated factors in Arba Minch town and Arba Minch Zuria woreda. Methods. Community based study was conducted in Arba Minch town and Arba Minch Zuria district. Multistage sampling technique was used and data were collected using interviewer administered standard questionnaire. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to determine the presence of statistically significant associations between the outcome variable and the independent variables. Results. The level of male involvement in PMTCT program in Arba Minch town and Zuria district was 53%. Several factors appear to contribute to male involvement in the PMTCT program including age, residence, education level, knowledge on HIV, knowledge on PMTCT, accessibility of health facility, having weak perception for male involvement in PMTCT, having perception of ANC attendance being females' responsibility, ever use of khat, and ever use of cigarette. Conclusion. Geographical accessibility of health facility and male's knowledge on PMTCT should be improved to increase their involvement in PMTCT.

BackgroundImmunization averts an estimated 2 to 3 million deaths every year globally. In Ethiopia only quarter of children are fully immunized; the rest are remained at risk for vaccine-preventable mortality. To increase the immunization, its coverage and predictors has to be identified. This study has measured immunization coverage and identified the predictors.MethodsCross-sectional community based study has been conducted within 630 age 12–23 months children in 15 districts of Arba Minch town and Arba Minch Zuria district, Southern Ethiopia in March 2013. Census was done to identify eligible children. The 2005 world health organization expanded program of immunization cluster sampling method has been used. Data were collected using semi-structured pretested Amharic version questionnaire by interviewing index children’s mothers/caretakers, copying from vaccine card and observing BCG vaccine scar. Data were processed using SPSS version 16. Associations between dependent and independent variables has been assessed and presented using three consecutive logistic regression models.ResultNearly three fourth (73.2%) of children in Arba Minch Town and Arba Minch Zuria district were fully immunized. The rest 20.3% were partially immunized and 6.5% received no vaccine. Mother education, mothers’ perception to accessibility of vaccines, mothers’ knowledge to vaccine schedule of their site, place of delivery and living altitude were independent predictors of children immunization status.ConclusionExpanded program of immunization (EPI) coverage at Arba Minch town and Arba Minch Zuria district is better than the national immunization coverage but still below the goal. Educating mother, promoting institution delivery could help to maintain and enhance current immunization coverage. More emphasis should be given to the highland areas of the area.

AIM: To establish the efficacy of oral formulations of ivermectin and moxidectin against naturally acquired abomasal nematode infections on a North Island sheep farm. METHODS: Two controlled slaughter trials were undertaken. In the first, 30 sheep on pasture were randomly allocated on the basis of faecal egg count to 1 of 3 groups, comprising an untreated control group and 2 treatment groups. One treatment group was given a single oral dose of ivermectin and the other a single oral dose of moxidectin, both at the manufacturer's recommended dose rates of 0.2 mg/kg liveweight. Six days after treatment, all animals were slaughtered and their abomasa recovered for worm counting. The second trial, which involved 47 animals, was essentially the same as the first except that, as well as involving the slaughter of 30 sheep from all 3 groups, 6 days after treatment, it also included a further 8 untreated control animals and 9 moxidectin treated animals which were slaughtered 27 days after treatment. RESULTS: At 6 days after treatment, moxidectin was highly effective against all 3 of the abomasal nematodes present. While ivermectin was similarly effective against Trichostrongylus axei 6 days after treatment, it was not effective against either Ostertagia circumcinta or Haemonchus contortus, against which average efficacies of only 63.6% and 61.6%, respectively, were recorded. At 27 days after treatment, moxidectin, was also highly effective against T. axei (97.3% reduction) but not against either H. contortus (71.4% reduction) or O. circumcinta (61.0% reduction). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide the first record of macrocyclic lactone resistance in H. contortus in sheep or in any other host in New Zealand, and the first case where such resistance has been exhibited in more than one parasite species at a time. Although the therapeutic efficacy of moxidectin was high against these resistant H. contortus and O. circumcincta strains, resistance to moxidectin was indicated by its diminished prophylactic activity against them. It is suggested that this reduction in the prophylactic activity of moxidectin is also likely to reduce its apparent current high therapeutic efficacy. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: As well as providing further evidence that it can no longer be automatically assumed that macrocylic lactone anthelmintics will be effective on sheep farms in this country, these findings also present a warning that increasingly complex parasite control options may have to be faced in the future.

Species diversity, benzimidazole resistance, and phytochemical synergy in gastrointestinal nematode nemabiomes from sheep farms in Portugal.

The study was conducted from November 2011 to April 2012. Two hundred twenty two sheep and 174 goats’ abomasum were examined according to the standard procedures. The overall prevalence of abomasal nematode was 82% for sheep and 76.4% for goats. The parasitic species specific prevalence was 80.6, 25.7, and 14.8% for Haemonchus species, Trichostrongylus axei and Teladorsagia circumcincta, respectively in sheep and 75.2, 9.8, 14.2% in goats. Sex related prevalence for sheep was 79.6, 25.7, 17.1% in male and 81.9, 25.5, and 11.7% in female for Haemonchus species, Trichostrongylus axei and Teladorsagia circumcinecta respectively. The sex related prevalence in goats was 71.9, 5.7, 6.1% and 81.6, 21.6, 16.6% for Haemonchus species, Trichostrongylus axei and Teladorsagia circumcinecta, respectively for male and female. The overall mean worm count was 7459.4 for sheep and 6244.9 for goats. The sex related mean worm burden was significantly higher (P<0.05) in female than male for both sheep and goats. Female Haemonchus species Vulvar morphology was characterized and linguiform vulvar morphology was the most and knobbed type vulva morphology was the least frequently identified vulvar type both from sheep and goats’ worms with higher proportions of linguiform vulva from goats than sheep. It was concluded that the variation in prevalence and vulvar morphotype was almost similar with little deviations between sheep and goats. So importance of role of sheep to goats or goats to sheep as reservoir should be assessed. Investigations using advanced molecular techniques should be carried on genetic diversity and pathogenecity of Haemonchus in special as drug resistance is another emerging challenge in addition to the economic loss. Key words: Abomasal nematodes, Haemonchus, Hawassa, prevalence, vulvar morphology.

Deer are susceptible to infection with parasitic helminths, including species which are of increasing economic concern to the livestock industry due to anthelmintic drug resistance. This paper systematically collates helminth prevalence data from deer across Europe and explores patterns in relation to host and parasite species, as well as landscape factors. A livestock pasture contact index (LPCI) is developed to predict epidemiological overlap between deer and livestock, and hence to examine deer helminth fauna in the context of their surrounding environment. Fifty-eight studies comprising fallow (Dama dama), red (Cervus elaphus), roe (Capreolus capreolus) and sika (Cervus nippon) deer were identified. Deer populations in "likely" contact with livestock pasture had a higher mean prevalence of the abomasal nematodes Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia ostertagi, Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus axei (p = 0.01), which are common in livestock and not primarily associated with deer. Roe deer populations had a higher prevalence of T. circumcincta (p = 0.02) and T. axei (p = 0.01) than fallow deer and a higher prevalence of H. contortus than both red (p = 0.01) and fallow deer (p = 0.02). Liver fluke and lungworm species were present sporadically at low prevalence, while the abomasal nematode Ashworthius sidemi occurred locally at high prevalence. Insights from this research suggest that deer helminth fauna is reflective of their surrounding environment, including the livestock species which inhabit areas of shared grazing. This is explored from an epidemiological perspective, and the prospect of helminth transmission between wild and domestic hosts is discussed, including drug-resistant strains, alongside the role of helminths as indicators relevant to the transmission of other pathogens at the wildlife-livestock interface.

This study investigates the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants in Ismailia, Port-said and Damietta cities, during a period from October 2016 to September 2017. A total of 130 fecal samples were collected from sporadic cases and 60 abomasal samples and 36 small intestinal samples were collected from slaughtered animals in abattoirs to detect the adult nematode parasites. The results indicated that sheep was infected with 5 species of nematodes 3 in abomasum and 2 types in small intestine. The prevalence of the infection were 26.15%, 30% and 11.11% in faecal , abomasal. and small intestine samples respectively. The highest prevalence of the nematodes was in young animals (71.42% in ovine sp., 14.28% in bovine sp. and 0.0% in caprine sp). Higher prevalence was in male sheep 60% than ewe 30%. Damietta was the highest in prevalence (47.6%) then in Ismailia (29.16%) and 0.0% in Port-said. The most prevalent species of nematodes in abomasum was Haemonchus contortus (26.67%), Ostertagia sp. (10%) and Trichostrongylus axei (3.33%). In small intestine, were Cooperia sp. (11.11%) and Nematodirus sp.(5.56%). Faecal egg count reduction test was carried out on Ivomec super & Albendazole to demonstrate the efficacy of anthelmintics, and proved the Ivomec was more potent than Albendazole in treatment of GINs.

Forty-eight tracer lambs were killed in 2004-2007. The abomasum, duodenum, small intestine (jejunum and ileum), colon and caecum were collected and processed for parasites enumeration and identification-mucosal scrapings of both abomasums and intestines were digested. Out of 48 gastrointestinal tracts examined, all were found to be positive for nematode infection. Seventeen species of gastrointestinal nematodes were recovered: Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Cooperia curticei, Haemonchus contortus, Chabertia ovina, Nematodirus battus, Nematodirus filicollis, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus vitrinus, Strongyloides papillosus, Trichuris ovis, Trichuris globulosa, Trichuris skrjabini and Skrjabinema ovis. All species were searched for in the entire gastrointestinal tract. Six species of nematodes were recovered from abnormal sites, naturally in small numbers of lambs as well as in small amounts: Nematodirus battus in the abomasums (6.67% of lambs), N. filicollis in the caecum and in the colon (%4 and 8%, respectively), T. axei in the colon (9.52%), T. colubriformis in the colon (13.89%), T. vitrinus in the caecum (16.67%), in the colon (20.00%) and in the abomasum (3.33%). T. ovis was found in one case in the small intestine.

SUMMARY The efficacy of 2 injectable formulations of ivermectin, administered intraorally at the dosage of 200 μg/kg of body weight, was evaluated against naturally occurring infections by abomasal nematodes in lambs in 2 controlled tests. One test (A) included 17 lambs treated with the equine formulation and 16 nontreated lambs. For the other test (B), 14 lambs were treated with the bovine formulation, and 12 were nontreated. In controlled test A, only mature nematodes were recovered, and removals were 98% to 100% for Haemonchus contortus, Ostertagia circumcincta ♂, Ο trifurcata ♂, Ostertagia spp ♀, and Trichostrongylus axei. For controlled test B, removals were 99% to 100% for Haemonchus spp (immature), H contortus (mature), Ostertagia spp (immature), Ο circumcincta ♂ (mature), Ο trifurcata ♂ (mature), Ostertagia spp ♀ (mature), Trichostrongylus spp (immature), and T axei (mature). Toxicosis was not evident in treated lambs.

BackgroundGastrointestinal nematode (GIN) control is traditionally achieved with the use of anthelmintic drugs, however due to regulations in organic farming and the rise in anthelmintic resistance, alternatives are sought after. A promising alternative is the use of bioactive plant feeding due to the presence of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) such as proanthocyanidins (PAs). This study focussed on the perennial shrub heather (Ericaceae family), a plant rich in PAs, highly abundant across Europe and with previously demonstrated anthelmintic potential.MethodsIn vitro assays were used to investigate heather’s anthelmintic efficacy against egg hatching and larval motility. Heather samples were collected from five European countries across two seasons, and extracts were tested against two GIN species: Teladorsagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus colubriformis. Polyphenol group-specific ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis was performed to identify relevant polyphenol subgroups present, including the PA concentration and size and ratio of the subunits. Partial least squares analysis was performed to associate efficacy with variation in PSM composition.ResultsHeather extracts reduced egg hatching of both GIN species in a dose-dependent manner by up to 100%, while three extracts at the highest concentration (10 mg/ml) reduced larval motility to levels that were not significantly different from dead larvae controls. PAs, particularly the procyanidin type, and flavonol derivatives were associated with anthelmintic activity, and the particular subgroup of polyphenols associated with the efficacy was dependent on the GIN species and life stage.ConclusionsOur results provide in vitro evidence that heather, a widely available plant often managed as a weed in grazing systems, has anthelmintic properties attributed to various groups of PSMs and could contribute to sustainable GIN control in ruminant production systems across Europe.Graphical

Three separate populations of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) in Norway were examined for the presence of abomasal nematodes. The following six species were recorded: Ostertagia grühneri, Skrjabinagia arctica, Trichostrongylus axei, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Teladorsagia davtiani, and Nematodirus tarandi. Ostertagia grühneri dominated both in prevalence and intensity of infection. Teladorsagia davtiani occurred in only one of the populations investigated, and N. tarandi was found in calves only. Reindeer and sheep grazed the same areas, but no evidence of transfer of parasites from sheep to reindeer was found. All 72 adult reindeer and 10 calves examined during February–April harboured adult abomasal nematodes. The mean intensity of abomasal nematodes was highest in the population with the highest density of reindeer. Reindeer from this population were in poor physical condition. The influence of abomasal nematodes on life-history parameters of the host population is discussed.

Gastrointestinal nematodes threaten the productivity of grazing livestock and anthelmintic resistance has emerged globally. It is broadly understood that wild ruminants living in sympatry with livestock act as a positive source of refugia for anthelmintic-susceptible nematodes. However, they might also act as reservoirs of anthelmintic-resistant nematodes, contributing to the spread of anthelmintic resistance at a regional scale. Here, we sampled managed sheep and cattle together with feral goats within the same property in New South Wales, Australia. Internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2) nemabiome metabarcoding identified 12 gastrointestinal nematodes (Cooperia oncophora, Cooperia punctata, Haemonchus contortus, Haemonchus placei, Nematodirus spathiger, Ostertagia ostertagi, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Oesophagostomum radiatum, Oesophagostomum venulosum, Trichostrongylus axei, Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Trichostrongylus rugatus). Isotype-1 β-tubulin metabarcoding targeting benzimidazole resistance polymorphisms identified 6 of these nematode species (C. oncophora, C. punctata, H. contortus, H. placei, O. ostertagi and T. circumcincta), with the remaining 3 genera unable to be identified to the species level (Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Trichostrongylus). Both ITS-2 and β-tubulin metabarcoding showed the presence of a cryptic species of T. circumcincta, known from domestic goats in France. Of the gastrointestinal nematodes detected via β-tubulin metabarcoding, H. contortus, T. circumcincta, Nematodirus and Trichostrongylus exhibited the presence of at least one resistance genotype. We found that generalist gastrointestinal nematodes in untreated feral goats had a similarly high frequency of the benzimidazole-resistant F200Y polymorphism as those nematodes in sheep and cattle. This suggests cross-transmission and maintenance of the resistant genotype within the wild ruminant population, affirming that wild ruminants should be considered potential reservoirs of anthelmintic resistance.

An anthelmintic efficacy trial was conducted in sheep harbouring anthelmintic-resistant worms in Argentina. Seventy lambs were selected from a flock that had been grazed on pastures infected with trichostrongyles previously shown to be resistant to the main anthelmintic groups. Lambs were allocated to comparable groups of ten animals each and treated with trichlorphon (50 mg/kg body weight (b.w.) orally); naphthalophos (50 mg/kg b.w. orally); ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg b.w. subcutaneously); fenbendazole (5 mg/kg b.w. orally); levamisole (8 mg/kg b.w. subcutaneously) and closantel (10 mg/kg b.w. orally). There was also an untreated group. The dose selection was based on manufacturer's recommendations.Faecal samples were collected 0 and 10 days post treatment to estimate efficacy (faecal egg count reduction). Six animals from each group were necropsied at day 10 for enumeration/identification of worms from the abomasum, small and large intestines to determine the absolute efficacy of each agent (controlled efficacy test). Trichlorphon and naphthalophos were effective (> 99 %) against Haemonchus contortus (p < 0.05).Naphthalophos also showed efficacy against Trichostrongylus axei (99.3 %), Teladorsagia circumcincta (97.8 %), Trichostrongylus colubriformis (99.2 %), Cooperia punctata/curticei/pectinata (90.4 %), Nematodirus spathiger (89.2 %) and Oesophagostomum venulosum/columbianum (93.7 %). Fenbendazole and levamisole showed efficacy (> 95 %) against all nematodes except T. colubriformis. The efficacy of ivermectin was low against H. contortus (23 %) and Cooperia spp. (46.3 %). Closantel showed low efficacy against T. axei (64.4 %), H. contortus (80.6 %) and T. colubriformis (59.5 %).When anthelmintic resistance is widespread, trichlorphon treatment is appropriate if H. contortus is present; however, naphthalophos represents an effective therapeutic alternative for incorporation into worm control programmes.

Gastro-intestinal nematodes (GINs) are still of great concern in grazing ruminants, such as camelids, ovines and caprines, affecting animal health and productivity. This is mainly due to the development of anthelmintic resistance (AR) to the compounds used long term, without much evaluation on their efficacy, including ivermectin (IVM), the most used anthelmintic drug in livestock. The aims of this study were to determine the efficacy of IVM and identify which GIN species are affecting different ruminant farms in Quebec (QC), Canada. Firstly, we collected fecal samples from six farms with different ruminant species (camelids, goats and sheep) before and after IVM treatment when applicable, analyzing them by Fecal Egg Count (FEC) and further assessments on IVM efficacy through the Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT). In addition, molecular analyses were conducted using PCR, targeting the ITS-2 and COX-1 genes to identify GIN species. FECRT was applied only for three farms, showing that variable results with optimal efficacy (ranging from 95.5–100%) were obtained in only one farm, whereas on the other two farms, FECRT exhibited reduced efficacy, suggesting the development of IVM resistance. Among the GIN species found, Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus vitrinus were identified in most of the farms, being present in sheep, goat, llama and alpaca farms, whereas Teladorsagia circumcincta was identified only in sheep and llama samples from four farms but not in alpaca samples. Trichostrongylus axei and Chabertia ovina were present in two farms (sheep and sheep and llamas). Oesophagostomum venulosum was detected in one sheep and one alpaca farm. Only one sheep farm was positive for Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Cooperia curticei. Also, Nematodirus spp. and Trichuris spp. were found in four farms, including sheep and camelids. In addition, three other species were found in camelids, including Camelostrongylus mentulatus (only in the llama samples), whereas Lamanema chavezi and Marshallagia marshalli were identified in one alpaca farm. Therefore, our work reports evidence of an uneven efficacy of IVM against GINs from ruminant farms, including the most likely emergence of IVM resistance. The diversity of GIN species found in ruminant farms in QC along with the inconsistent IVM efficacy are helpful information for veterinarians and animal producers in setting an optimal parasite management programs, including the proper use of IVM and alternative anthelmintic drugs to control these pathogens in grazing livestock.

The anthelmintic resistance has limited the control of gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants and thus has awakened interest in the study of tanniferous plants as a source of anthelmintics. These experiments were carried out to evaluate the in vitro efficacy of Myracrodruon urundeuva leaf extract (LE) and stem extract (SE) against Haemonchus contortus. An inhibitor of tannins, polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVPP), was used to verify if these metabolites are involved in the anthelmintic activity of the extracts. To evaluate the ovicidal effect, H. contortus eggs were incubated with the extracts (0.31 to 5 mg/mL) for 48 h. In the larval artificial exsheathment assay, third-stage larvae of this nematode were incubated with extracts (0.31 mg/mL) for 3 h and then were exposed to a sodium hypochlorite solution. The exsheathment process was evaluated for 60 min. The results were subjected to the Kruskal-Wallis test (P < 0.05). The extracts showed dose-dependent ovicidal effects, although the LE was more effective, inhibiting egg hatching by 97.73% at 1.25 mg/mL, while the SE inhibited hatching by 83.56% at 5 mg/mL. Contact with the extracts blocked the larval exsheathment (P < 0.05). The addition of PVPP confirmed the role of tannins, as there was a substantial reduction in egg hatching and larval exsheathment percentage. These results suggest that M. urundeuva can be used to control gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants and that the anthelmintic activity of this plant is probably related to tannins; however, in vivo studies should be conducted.