A Unifying Theory of Dark Energy, Dark Matter, and Baryonic Matter in the Positive-Negative Mass Universe Pair: Protogalaxy and Galaxy Evolutions

We study a modified interacting dark energy (MIDE) model as a candidate to describe possible interaction between dark energy and dark matter as well as that between dark energy and baryonic matter. More specifically, we introduce a new parameter γ b to quantify the extent of interaction between dark energy and baryons. With three classes of cosmological distance observations including CMB measurements from Planck and WMAP9 results, as well as the recent direct measurements of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift, we study the allowable values of γ c and γ b and other cosmological parameters. The constraint results obtained by using the MCMC method show: (1) The interaction term γ b quantifying the extent of interaction between baryonic matter and dark energy is nearly equal to 0, which strongly support the whole coupled dark energy scenario based on the assumption that baryons should remain uncoupled in order to allow a non-negligible coupling to dark matter. (2) At the 95.4 % confidence level, we see the energy of dark energy is slightly transferring to that of dark matter; (3) Concerning the typical value of the present energy density ratio between baryonic matter and dark matter in the universe, we obtain a positive coupling between dark energy and matter at 2σ, which indicates that dark energy is leaking energy to matter. Finally, concerning the observational density parameter ratio Ω b /Ω m derived from the gas mass fraction data (f g a s ), within the framework of the phenomenological interaction model, we observe a good compatibility between the observational constraints from f g a s and other combined data.

The main objective of this article is to derive new gravitational field equations and to establish a unified theory for dark energy and dark matter. The gravitational field equations with a scalar potential $\varphi$ function are derived using the Einstein-Hilbert functional, and the scalar potential $\varphi$ is a natural outcome of the divergence-free constraint of the variational elements.Gravitation is now described by the Riemannian metric$g_{\mu\nu}$, the scalar potential $\varphi$ and their interactions, unified by the new field equations.From quantum field theoretic point of view, the vector field $\Phi_\mu=D_\mu \varphi$, the gradient of the scalar function $\varphi$, is a spin-1 massless bosonic particle field. The field equations induce a natural duality between the graviton (spin-2 massless bosonic particle) and this spin-1 massless bosonic particle. Both particles can be considered as gravitational force carriers, and as they are massless, the induced forces are long-range forces. The (nonlinear) interaction between these bosonic particle fields leads to a unified theory for dark energy and dark matter. Also, associated with the scalar potential $\varphi$ is the scalar potential energy density $\frac{c^4}{8\pi G} \Phi=\frac{c^4}{8\pi G} g^{\mu\nu}D_\mu D_\nu \varphi$, which represents a new type of energy caused by the non-uniform distribution of matter in the universe.The negative part of this potential energy density produces attraction, and the positive part produces repelling force. This potential energy density is conserved with mean zero: $\int_M \Phi dM=0$.The sum of this potential energy density$\frac{c^4}{8\pi G} \Phi$ and the coupling energy between the energy-momentum tensor $T_{\mu\nu}$ and the scalar potential field $\varphi$ gives rise to a unified theory for dark matter and dark energy:The negative part ofthis sum represents the dark matter, which produces attraction,and the positive part represents the dark energy, which drives the acceleration of expanding galaxies.In addition, the scalar curvature of space-time obeys $R=\frac{8\pi G}{c^4} T + \Phi$.Furthermore, the proposed field equations resolve a few difficulties encountered by the classical Einstein field equations.

In this work, I shall figure out the general structure of dark fabric matter, and the direct interactions of the celestial objects, ordinary matter, and ordinary energy with dark fabric matter and energy. Dark Fabric matter and energy is a hidden dimension of the parallel universes, visible Universe, galaxies, Atoms, molecules, ordinary matter, celestial objects, stellar systems, and Planetary systems. The Main Structure of Dark fabric matter consists of the Dark matter particles called Fabriton particles, Dark Matter Strings, and Dark Matter Webs. The dark matter particles are named fabriton particles. Fabriton means Fast actively binding reacting in total objects naturally. Fabriton is a good proposed name for dark matter particles to be recognized among subatomic particles. The mystery of Dark matter and the dark energy could be solved here entirely. Einstein and Newton built clear mathematical equations to describe the nature of gravity, after them many other people worked warmly to resolve the reality of gravity, dark matter, and dark energy. Gravity is the ripples, curvatures, gravitational waves, and tunnels that form rapidly in the structure of dark fabric matter and energy when celestial objects and ordinary matter particles pass through it directly.

Gravitational lensing emerged as an observational field following the 1979 discovery of a doubly imaged quasar lensed by a foreground galaxy. In the 1980s and '90s dozens of other multiply imaged systems were observed, as well as time delay measurements, weak and strong lensing by galaxies and galaxy clusters, and the discovery of microlensing in our galaxy. The rapid pace of advances has continued into the new century. Lensing is currently one of best techniques for finding and mapping dark matter over a wide range of scales, and also addresses broader cosmological questions such as understanding the nature of dark energy. This focus issue of New Journal of Physics presents a snapshot of current research in some of the exciting areas of lensing. It provides an occasion to look back at the advances of the last decade and ahead to the potential of the coming years.

The paper brings a novel approach to unification of dark matter and dark energy in terms of a cosmic fluid. A model is introduced in which the cosmic fluid speed of sound squared is defined as a function of its equation of state (EoS) parameter. It is shown how logarithmic part of this function results in dynamical regimes previously not observed in cosmic fluid models. It is shown that in a particular dynamical regime the model behaves as a unification of dark matter and phantom dark energy. Further, it is shown that the model may describe dark matter - dark energy unification in which dark energy asymptotically behaves as dark energy with a constant EoS parameter larger than −1. In a specific parameter regime the unified fluid model also reproduces global expansion similar to ΛCDM model with fluid speed of sound vanishing for small scale factor values and being small, or even vanishing, for large scale factor values. Finally, it is shown how the model may be instrumental in describing the cosmic fluid dark matter-dark energy-dark matter unification. Physical constraints on model parameters yielding such transient dark energy behavior are obtained.

In this article, we propose a new model of dark matter. According to this new model, dark matter is a substance, that is a new physical element not constituted of classical particles, called dark substance and filling the Universe. Assuming some very simple physical properties to this dark substance, we theoretically justify the flat rotation curve of galaxies and the baryonic Tully-Fisher’s law. We then study according to our new theory of dark matter  the different possible distributions of dark matter in galaxies and in galaxy clusters, and the velocities of galaxies in galaxy clusters.
 
 Then using the new model of dark matter we are naturally led to propose a new geometrical model of Universe, finite, that is different from all geometrical models proposed by the Standard Cosmological Model (SCM). Despite that our Theory of dark matter is compatible with the SCM, we then expose a new Cosmological model based on this new geometrical form of the Universe and on the interpretation of the CMB Rest Frame (CRF), that has not physical interpretation on the SCM and that we will call local Cosmological frame. We then propose 2 possible mathematical models of expansion inside the new Cosmological model. The 1st mathematical model is based on General Relativity as the SCM and gives the same theoretical predictions of distances and of the Hubble’s constant as the SCM. The 2nd mathematical model of expansion of the Universe is mathematically much simpler than the mathematical model of expansion used in the SCM, but we will see that its theoretical predictions are in agreement with astronomical observations. Moreover, this 2nd mathematical model of expansion does not need to introduce the existence of a dark energy contrary to the mathematical model of expansion of the SCM. To end we study the evolution of the temperature of dark substance in the Universe and we make appear the existence of a dark energy, due to our model of dark matter.

In the proposed light-dark dual universe, the light universe is the observable universe with light and kinetic energy that fueled the Big Bang, and the dark universe without light and kinetic energy has been observed as dark energy since about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. The light-dark dual universe started from the zero-energy universe through the four-stage cyclic transformation. Emerging from the zero-energy universe, the four-stage transformation consists of the 11D (dimensional) positive-negative energy dual membrane universe, the 10D positive-negative energy dual string universe, the 10D positive-negative energy dual particle universe, and the 4D (light)-variable D (dark) positive-negative energy dual particle asymmetrical universe. The transformation can then be reversed back to the zero-energy universe through the reverse four-stage transformation. The light universe is an observable four-dimensional universe started with the inflation and the Big Bang, and the dark universe is a variable dimensional universe from 10D to 4D. The dark universe could be observed as dark energy only when the dark universe turned into a four-dimensional universe. The four-stage transformation explains the four force fields in our universe. The theoretical calculated percentages of dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter are 72.8. 22.7, and 4.53, respectively, in nearly complete agreement with observed 72.8, 22.7, and 4.56, respectively. According to the calculation, dark energy started in 4.47 billion years ago in agreement with the observed 4.71 ± 0.98 billion years ago. The zero-energy cyclic universe is based on the space-object structures.

The paper posits that the multiverse is reversible, so all universes in the multiverse are reversible cyclic universes which have the inexhaustible resources of space-time to expand. The collision of expanding universes is permanently irreversible, forbidden in the reversible multiverse, so every universe is surrounded by the zero-energy interuniversal void as the permanent gap among universes to keep universes apart. A zero-sum energy dual universe of positive energy universe and negative energy universe can be created in the interuniversal void, and the new dual universe is again surrounded by the interuniversal void. This paper also posits the reversible string theory with oscillating space-time dimension number oscillating between 11D (space-time dimension) and 4D without the conventional compactization of string. Dimension number decreases with decreasing speed of light, decreasing vacuum energy, and increasing rest mass. The 4D and the 11D have zero and the highest vacuum energies, respectively. The universes in the reversible multiverse oscillate reversibly between high and low dimension numbers. Under symmetry breaking as in our universe, the positive energy universe as our observed universe absorbed the interuniversal void, while the negative energy universe did not. The interuniversal void has zero vacuum energy, so the absorption of the interuniversal void by the positive energy universe forced the positive energy 10D universe with high vacuum energy to be transformed into the positive energy 4D universe with zero vacuum energy, resulting in the inflation followed by the Big Bang. The negative energy universe undergoes dimension number oscillation between 4D and 10D dimension by dimension. The negative energy >4D universe is hidden, and the negative energy 4D universe appears as dark energy. The calculated percentages of dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter and the calculated time for dark energy to start are in good agreements with the observed values.

The paper derives the galaxy evolution by the non-interacting (incompatibility) between dark matter and baryonic matter in terms of the short-range separation between dark matter and baryonic matter, so dark matter cannot contact baryonic matter. In the conventional CDM (cold dark matter) model, dark matter and baryonic matter are interactive (compatible), so dark matter can contact baryonic matter. However, the conventional CDM model fails to account for the failure to detect dark matter by the contact (interaction) between dark matter and baryonic matter, the shortage of small galaxies, the abundance of spiral galaxies, the old age of large galaxies, and the formation of thin spiral galaxies. The non-interacting (incompatible cold dark matter) model can account for these observed phenomena. The five periods of baryonic structure development in the order of increasing non-interacting (incompatibility) are the free baryonic matter, the baryonic droplet, the galaxy, the cluster, and the supercluster periods.

In this paper, Bianchi type VI0 magnetized anisotropic dark energy models with constant deceleration parameter have been studied by solving the Rosen's field equations in Bimetric theory of gravitation. The models corresponding to power law expansion and exponential law expansion have been evaluated and studied their nature geometrically and physically. It is seen that there is real visible matter (baryonic matter) suddenly appeared only for small interval of time 0.7 ≤ t < 0.7598 and for the remaining whole range of time t, there is dark energy matter in the universe. Our investigations are supported to the observational fact that the usual matter described by known particle theory is about 4% and the dark energy cause the accelerating expansion of the universe and several high precision observational experiments, especially the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropic Probe (WMAP) satellite experiment (see [C. L. Bennett et al., Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 148 (2003) 1; WMAP Collab. (D. N. Spergel et al.), Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 148 (2003) 175; D. N. Spergel et al., Astrophys. J. Suppl. 170 (2007) 377; WMAP Collab. (E. Komastu et al.), Astrophys. J. Suppl. 180 (2009) 330; WMAP Collab. (G. Hinshaw et al.), Astrophys. J. Suppl. 208 (2013) 19; Plank Collab. (P. A. R. Ade), arXiv:1303.5076; arXiv:1303.5082]) conclude that the dark energy occupies near about 73% of the energy of the universe and dark matter is about 23%. In exponential law of expansion, our model is fully occupied by real visible matter and there is no chance of dark energy and dark matter.

We have considered a cosmological model of holographic dark energy interacting with dark matter and another unknown component of dark energy of the universe. We have assumed two interaction terms Q and Q′ in order to include the scenario in which the mutual interaction between the two principal components (i.e., holographic dark energy and dark matter) of the universe leads to some loss in other forms of cosmic constituents. Our model is valid for any sign of Q and Q′. If Q<Q′, then part of the dark energy density decays into dark matter and the rest in the other unknown energy density component. But if Q>Q′, then dark matter energy receives from dark energy and from the unknown component of dark energy. Observation suggests that dark energy decays into dark matter. Here we have presented a general prescription of a cosmological model of dark energy which imposes mutual interaction between holographic dark energy, dark matter and another fluid. We have obtained the equation of state for the holographic dark energy density which is interacting with dark matter and other unknown component of dark energy. Using first law of thermodynamics, we have obtained the entropies for holographic dark energy, dark matter and other component of dark energy, when holographic dark energy interacting with two fluids (i.e., dark matter and other component of dark energy). Also we have found the entropy at the horizon when the radius (L) of the event horizon measured on the sphere of the horizon. We have investigated the GSL of thermodynamics at the present time for the universe enveloped by this horizon. Finally, it has been obtained validity of GSL which implies some bounds on deceleration parameter q.

Focus on Dark Matter

Dark energy and dark matter, two subjects of basic physics, have received a lot of attention in the 21st century. From the observational point of view, the interaction between dark energy and dark matter can significantly affect cosmological distances. This gives rise to the possibility of indirectly detecting such interaction through high-redshift cosmological probes. Theoretically, the introduction of interaction between dark energy and dark matter can assist in alleviating the coincidence problem of the standard cosmological model ($\Lambda$CDM model). Furthermore, this can provide a new method of studying the properties of dark matter particles. In this paper, based on the latest observations of multiple measurements of quasars (X-ray+UV quasars acting as standard candles, compact radio quasars acting as standard rulers) covering the redshift range of $0.04~&lt;~z~&lt;~5.1$ and baryonic acoustic oscillation between ($0.38~&lt;~z~&lt;~2.34$), we investigate the observational constraints on a variety of interacting dark energy models ($\gamma_d~$IDE model, $\gamma_m~$IDE model) and other cosmological models ($\Lambda$CDM model, XCDM model). The results provide us with a quantitative analysis of the possible interaction between dark energy and dark matter, as well as the possible range of the mass of dark matter particles. The joint analysis shows that: (1) Multiple measurements of quasars can provide more stringent constraints on the interacting dark energy models, which can further strengthen the potential of quasars acting as effective cosmological standard probes at higher redshifts; (2) In the framework of both $\gamma_m$IDE model and $\gamma_d$IDE model, the quasar data supports possible conversion of dark energy into dark matter at high redshift, which alleviates the coincidence problem to some extent. We also found that the interaction term is of a small value, which demonstrates the negligible interaction between dark matter and dark energy; (3) In the framework of $\Lambda$CDM model, which has shown the best consistency with quasar data, the density parameter of matter in the Universe is constrained at $\Omega_~m=0.317^{+0.007}_{-0.007}$, with the best-fit Hubble constant $H_0=68.177^{+0.497}_{-0.505}$ at 68.3% confidence level. These findings are consistent with the recent microwave background radiation (CMB) measurements from the Planck satellite; (4) If dark matter in the Universe exists in the form of scalar-field dark matter with $Z_2$ symmetry, we obtain the range of the mass of dark matter particles as $56~{\rm~GeV}\lesssim~m_S\lesssim~63~{\rm~GeV}$ or $m_S\gtrsim450~{\rm~GeV}$, based on the dark energy-dark matter coupling term from multiple measurements of quasars. Such conclusions agree well with the latest experimental results aimed at the direct detection of dark matter particles.

Brief review of recent advances in understanding dark matter and dark energy

The nature and properties of dark matter and dark energy in the universe are among the outstanding open issues of modern cosmology. Despite extensive theoretical and empirical efforts, the question “what is dark matter made of?” has not been answered satisfactorily. Candidates proposed to identify particle dark matter span over ninety orders of magnitude in mass, from ultra-light bosons, to massive black holes. Dark energy is a greater enigma. It is believed to be some kind of negative vacuum energy, responsible for driving galaxies apart in accelerated motion. In this article we take a relativistic approach in theorizing about dark matter and dark energy. Our approach is based on our recently proposed Information Relativity theory. Rather than theorizing about the identities of particle dark matter candidates, we investigate the relativistic effects on large scale celestial structures at their recession from an observer on Earth. We analyze a simplified model of the universe, in which large scale celestial bodies, like galaxies and galaxy clusters, are non-charged compact bodies that recede rectilinearly along the line-of-sight of an observer on Earth. We neglect contributions to dark matter caused by the rotation of celestial structures (e.g., the rotation of galaxies) and of their constituents (e.g., rotations of stars inside galaxies). We define the mass of dark matter as the complimentary portion of the derived relativistic mass, such that at any given recession velocity the sum of the two is equal to the Newtonian mass. The emerging picture from our analysis could be summarized as follows: 1) At any given redshift, the dark matter of a receding body exists in duality to its observable matter. 2) The dynamical interaction between the dark and the observed matter is determined by the body’s recession velocity (or redshift). 3) The observable matter mass density decreases with its recession velocity, with matter transforming to dark matter. 4) For redshifts z 0.5 the universe is dominated by dark matter. 5) Consistent with observational data, at redshift z = 0.5, the densities of matter and dark matter in the universe are predicted to be equal. 6) At redshift equaling the Golden Ratio (z ≈ 1.618), baryonic matter undergoes a quantum phase transition. The universe at higher redshifts is comprised of a dominant dark matter alongside with quantum matter. 7) Contrary to the current conjecture that dark energy is a negative vacuum energy that might interact with dark matter, comparisons of our theoretical results with observational results of ΛCDM cosmologies, and with observations of the relative densities of matter and dark energy at redshift z ≈ 0.55, allow us to conclude that dark energy is the energy carried by dark matter. 8) Application of the model to the case of rotating bodies, which will be discussed in detail in a subsequent paper, raises the intriguing possibility that the gravitational force between two bodies of mass is mediated by the entanglement of their dark matter components.