A toponymic evolution from the historical maps of Angra dos Reis (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)

The article focuses on the use of English legal terms denoting disturbance of the peace. The lexico-semantic group of these terms includes 228 elements. Nine of them are used on the whole territory of the United States (breach of the peace, disturbance of the peace, unlawful assembly, rout, riot, hooliganism, police riot, prison riot, student riot) and are defined as general terms. The rest of the terms (219) are used only on the territory of one state or on the territory of several states at the same time. These terms make up the majority of English legal terms denoting disturbance of the peace, and are referred to as regional terms. They appeared due to the ability of different states to create their own laws and due to the American common law system, which relies on court precedents as a source of law. One more reason for their appearance was the difference in the historical development of legal systems on the territories of different states. Regional terms denoting disturbance of the peace are divided into criminally specific and verbally specific. The group of criminally specific regional terms includes those that have no counterparts with the same meaning among general or other regional terms. These criminally specific regional terms are subdivided into those used only on the territory of one state and those used on the territory of several states. There are 142 criminally specific terms used only on the territory of one state and 5 criminally specific terms used on the territory of several states. The second group of regional terms includes verbally specific terms which have the same meaning as other general or regional terms denoting disturbance of the peace. Verbally specific terms are subdivided into those that have counterparts among terms used on the whole territory of the USA and those that have counterparts among other regional terms. There are 14 verbally specific terms that have counterparts among those used on the whole territory of the USA and 58 ones that have counterparts among other regional terms. Criminally specific terms used on the territory of only one state make up the majority of the terms in the lexico-semantic group of English legal terms denoting disturbance of the peace due to extra linguistic factors, which include the specific nature of the US law and the change in the knowledge about different kinds of disturbance of the peace in different US states.

A Review of:
 Golder, S., Wright, K., & Loke, Y.K. (2018). The development of search filters for adverse effects of surgical interventions in MEDLINE and Embase. Health Information and Libraries Journal, 35(2), 121-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/hir.12213
 Abstract
 Objective – “To develop and validate search filters for MEDLINE and Embase for the adverse effects of surgical interventions” (p.121).
 Design – From a universe of systematic reviews, the authors created “an unselected cohort…where relevant articles are not chosen because of the presence of adverse effects terms” (p.123). The studies referenced in the cohort reviews were extracted to create an overall citation set. From this, three equal-sized sets of studies were created by random selection, and used for: development of a filter (identifying search terms); evaluation of the filter (testing how well it worked); and validation of the filter (assessing how well it retrieved relevant studies).
 Setting – Systematic reviews of adverse effects from the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), published in 2014.
 Subjects – 358 studies derived from the references of 19 systematic reviews (352 available in MEDLINE, 348 available in Embase).
 Methods – Word and phrase frequency analysis was performed on the development set of articles to identify a list of terms, starting with the term creating the highest recall from titles and abstracts of articles, and continuing until adding new search terms produced no more new records recalled. The search strategy thus developed was then tested on the evaluation set of articles. In this case, using the strategy recalled all of the articles which could be obtained using generic search terms; however, adding specific search terms (such as the MeSH term “surgical site infection”) improved recall. Finally, the strategy incorporating both generic and specific search terms for adverse effects was used on the validation set of articles. Search strategies used are included in the article, as is a list in the discussion section of MeSH and Embase indexing terms specific to or suggesting adverse effects.
 Main Results – “In each case the addition of specific adverse effects terms could have improved the recall of the searches” (p. 127). This was true for all six cases (development, evaluation and validation study sets, for each of MEDLINE and Embase) in which specific terms were added to searches using generic terms, and recall percentages compared.
 Conclusion – While no filter can deliver 100% of items in a given standard set of studies on adverse effects (since title and abstract fields may not contain any indication of relevance to the topic), adding specific adverse effects terms to generic ones while developing filters is shown to improve recall for surgery-related adverse effects (similarly to drug-related adverse effects). The use of filters requires user engagement and critical analysis; at the same time, deploying well-constructed filters can have many benefits, including: helping users, especially clinicians, get a search started; managing a large and unwieldy set of citations retrieved; and to suggest new search strategies.

Concepts for medicinal plants are represented by a variety of associated general terms with specific indexing patterns in databases, which may not consistently reflect growth of records. The objectives of this study are to assess the development in databases by identifying general terms that describe herbal medicine with optimal retrieval recall and to identify possible special trends in co-occurrence of specific and general concepts. Different search strategies are tested in cab abstracts, medline and web of science. Specific terms (Origanum and Salvia) are employed. Relevant general terms (e.g. 'Plants, Medicinal', Phytotherapy, Herbal drugs) are identified, along with indexing trends and co-occurrences. Growth trends, in specific (narrower) terms, are similar among databases. General terms, however, exhibit dissimilar trends, sometimes almost opposing one another. Co-occurrence of specific and general terms is changing over time. General terms may not denote definite development of trends as the use of terms differs amongst databases, making it difficult to correctly assess possible numbers of relevant records. Perceived increase can, sometimes, be attributed to an increased occurrence of a more general term alongside the specific one. Thesaurus-controlled databases may yield more hits, because of 'up-posted' (broader) terms. Use of broader terms is helpful as it enhances retrieval of relevant documents.

Anderson et al. (1976) found that specific terms, which had not appeared in but fit the context of sentences, were better sentence recall cues than the general terms appearing in the sentences. They interpreted this as indicating that general terms in context were encoded on the basis of appropriate instantiations. Experiment 1, using part of the same material, demonstrated that the advantage of specific cues increased when the general terms were omitted from the to-be-remembered materials, and that other specific terms were also effective cues for the same material. Experiment 2 demonstrated that terms that could not be possible intantiations of any words in the sentences, but that shared common meaning with the sentences as a whole, were as effective retrieval cues as the specific terms. The advantage of specific cues was interpreted as attributable to feature overlap between the specific terms and the to-be-remembered materials rather than to instantiation of the general terms.

ObjectiveTo compare the effectiveness of systematic review literature searches that use either generic or specific terms for health outcomes.DesignProspective comparative study of two electronic literature search strategies. The ‘generic’ search...

Testing lexical equivalences for wine flavours in emerging markets: Do hawthorns taste like blackberries?

The second big challenge related to “voice” and a good writing style involves how you treat others in relation to your ideas. This article builds on the previous one titled “Finding Your Voice and Writing Well: Situating Yourself within Your Text” in the previous issue of Nurse Author and Editor by addressing how to use second-person pronouns, and other language conventions that are crucial in conveying your respect for people other than yourself. One of the most important things you can do to improve your writing and at the same time develop your unique voice is to examine your writing very carefully to detect those spots where you are inadvertently conveying a message you do not intend, and to select language that more accurately carries your message about people. Your messages about other people say much more about who you are than about the other people you are referencing. This is not merely a matter of being “politically correct”—it is a matter of showing your moral commitment to respect the dignity and humanity of other people. Here are a number of principles to examine: People first. Labels are disabling, and are generally considered inappropriate in good writing. One of the most subtly damaging labels is to use a diagnosis or condition as a label for the person. Therefore, a fundamental rule is to always acknowledge the person first, followed by any descriptive terms that reflect their circumstances, as in, “People who have/are living with diabetes or HIV/AIDS”—not the AIDS patient, or the diabetic. Labels that convey a derivative identity are so common when referring to women, that often English language speakers do not recognize the loss of personhood that accompanies the use of such labels. Words such as “wife,” “mother,” or “widow,” used in phrases such as “the mothers in this study” are not inaccurate, but in this phrase the women are assumed to be mothers first, not people first. Use instead wording that puts the human persons (in this case women) first, as in, “The women in this study, all of whom were mothers…” Descriptors and identifiers of others. “People first” implies that something comes after the central idea of “person.” That which comes next are the descriptors that locate people within a context, or that describe something about their unique circumstances, or the common ground that they share with others. Be careful about the descriptor terms that you use; people have the right to define themselves, and to select the descriptors that best identify who they are. For example, if you are writing about people who identify as gender-queer, regardless of your personal identity, you are responsible to acknowledge the range of preferred terms and descriptors used by the people you are writing about. If you are writing about women who are lesbians, recognize that some may prefer to use the word “gay” or “trans*” to self-identify. In order to acknowledge these differences, use a phrase like “women who self-identify as gender-queer, gay, trans*, or lesbian.” The preferred language requires more words, but, reflects a more accurate descriptive language that acknowledges the personhood of the people first, and their right to self-definition. Hidden bias. Hidden bias occurs when the terms used are neutral and free of bias, but the passage still carries a biased message. For example, the sentence “More women today are living with men without being married” carries a bias against women who are not married (Maggio, 3). The fact is that the number of men who are living with women in an unmarried arrangement equals the number of women in such arrangements. A more accurate statement would be “More heterosexual couples are living together today without being married.” Another common example is the non-parallel treatment of ethnicity. The “white and non-white” dichotomy conveys the importance of being white, since everyone else is lumped together in one “non-white” category. Since ancestry and ethnicity are complex dimensions that are becoming increasingly individualized, a preferred approach is to identify ancestral heritage by general geographic origin (for example Asian, African, Pacific-Islander, South American). If a specific cultural, national, ethnic or ancestral heritage is more accurate to the people that you are referring to, use the more specific terminology as closely allied with the preference of the people involved as possible. Inclusion/exclusion of others. The inclusion/exclusion principle refers to language that is accurate in terms of who is included and who is not included. The descriptor and identifiers described above reach in the direction of being inclusive of all audiences and acknowledging the diversity within that audience. However, in reaching toward inclusion, it is easy to use language that projects a certain point of view on all people. The principle of inclusion/exclusion appears deceptively simple, while in reality, it requires deep reflection and usually several revisions of text in order to achieve precisely accurate language, and to locate alternatives to generally acceptable language. There is no English term to acknowledge people who were forcibly brought into the country, including those forced as slaves, including those forced to a new country as a sex slave. The term “immigrant” does not linguistically include these groups, and they are groups who are often ignored. Be specific as to who you are including, where they arrived from, and within which time frame. What else do you assume about the group? Are they all English-speaking, first generation, in the country legally? The commonly used phrase “people of color” emerged in the English language in an effort to put people first, to avoid the obviously biased “non-white” term that casts “white” experience as the norm. However, the phrase still privileges white people by implying that anyone who is not white is “of color,” and homogenizes all people who do not claim a European ancestry and sustains a false inclusion based on ethnic or ancestral heritage. There is persistent confusion in the English language concerning sex and gender. “Sex” refers to a person's biological characteristics of male or female. “Gender” refers to socially and culturally acquired roles that are dominantly feminine or masculine (Eliason & Chinn, 2). The fundamental grammatical rule in using these two terms is one of accuracy. If you are writing about biological characteristics, then use the terms male or female. If you are writing about acquired social and cultural roles, you can accurately use the term “gender.” The terms “man” and “woman” are generally considered to be related to gender roles but are usually also assumed to reflect sex. If you are including people who consider themselves gender non-conforming, or gender-queer, you need to include these non-binary alternatives as well. Non-sexist language, or language that does not carry a bias or stereotype based on sex or gender, requires the use of gender and sex-neutral terms when possible, and accurate use of specific terms referring to men and women, girls and boys, females and males. There are a number of issues to be aware of in order to achieve accurate non-sexist use of language. Point of reference. The most common sexist error is the assumption that “male” and “men” (usually white, middle or upper-class) are the norm, or the point of reference. The phrase “equal opportunity” is a quintessential example from early feminist literature, and persists in many venues today. The question, “Equal to whom?” reveals the bias inherent in the phrase. For example, the phrase “equal access to education” most often would imply that women (or other disenfranchised groups) are being granted access to educational opportunities that previously were reserved for (white) men. The access that men have enjoyed is considered to be the norm toward which the disenfranchised group would aspire. Generally, this is considered to be a “good thing.” However, upon closer examination, feminist scholars for decades have raised questions concerning the nature of traditional education, the sexist bias that persists in these very institutions, and the desirability of conforming to the patriarchal norms inherent in these institutions (Nightingale, 4; Woolf, 5). Gender and sex-free language. Gender and sex-free terms are those that can be used for either men or women, males or females. Some such terms, however, also carry general assumptions about gender or sex, such as secretary, teacher, or nurse (assumed to be women), and doctor, lawyer, or merchant (assumed to be men). Generally, these terms are now preferred as generic gender-free terms without any sex-qualifiers, except when sex or gender is important to the meaning of the text. Such terms as “male nurse” or “woman doctor” are unacceptable. The test of such terms is to consider the symmetrical phrase “female nurse” or “male doctor.” If the symmetrical term is ridiculous, then both are ridiculous. Gender-fair language. When sex or gender is pertinent and appropriate, gender-fair language should be used. Gender-fair language involves the accurate, symmetrical use of gender-specific language for both men and women (Maggio, 3). For example, consider the symmetrical structure of this statement: “The survey showed that men are comfortable with a nurse who is female, while women are less accepting of a nurse who is male.” Notice the use of the “people first” principle, instead of the unacceptable sexist term “male nurse.” Gender-specific language. Gender-specific terms are neither good nor bad in themselves, but they need to be used accurately. Use “businessmen” if all the people you refer to are men. “Businesspeople” is a preferred gender-neutral term if indeed the gender of the people include both men and women in approximately equal numbers. However, since “business” people still typically arouse images of male persons, and since it remains true in most contexts that the majority of those to whom the term refers are still men, it is likely to be more accurate to use the more wordy phrase “business men and women” which also emphasizes the fact that women are indeed business people. Pseudo-generic language. Pseudo-generic terms are those that are used as if they refer to both men and women, but in fact they do not. The context of the writing typically reveals the error. For example, the phrase “clergy who are permitted to have wives” reveals that the author actually uses the generic term “clergy” to refer to heterosexual men. A more inclusive phrase would be “clergy who are permitted to have spouses or domestic partners.” A more subtle context that reveals the author's bias occurs when the generic term is used for several passages, and then a gender-specific passage occurs that reveals the fact that the generic term really only referred to men or women all along. This has been common with the supposedly generic use of the term “man.” If the author indeed were to mean both men and women, then when women enter the picture, they would not need to switch to the gender-specific use of the term “women,” but inevitably, they do. The same shift is common in lay texts that use the term “parent.” Initially, it may seem that the author means mothers and fathers. However, along the way a passage will single out fathers, revealing the underlying pseudo-generic use of the term “parent” when in fact the author meant “mother.” Usually an extended reading of the text reveals the bias, or, if you substitute the term “woman” for the term “man” or “father” for the terms “parent” throughout the text, the bias becomes quite clear. Feminine endings. Endings added to words to indicate female sex or gender are particularly damaging, in that they perpetuate the assumption that the male is the norm, specify a person's sex when it is irrelevant, and imply a diminutive, “cute” sense of the term. The inappropriateness of the feminine ending is often revealed when one considers the term that is considered male, or generic. Often, the parallel term carries a vastly different meaning, such as “governess,” compared to “governor.” Other parallel terms are not as dramatic in their vastly different meanings, but convey a gender-specific role that is less than favorable for women, such as “seducer” compared to “seductress.” To write well, you need to find your own voice. This is a far greater challenge than simply writing with first person pronouns, or expressing your own opinions. It is a complex challenge for all of your writing. Your “voice” tells your readers who you are as a person—the way you view other people in the world, and how you view your own self. The messages are subtle, but they carry messages of utmost importance that form the public image of who you are, what you stand for, and the values you bring to your work. Peggy L. Chinn, PhD, RN, FAAN is the Editor-in-Chief of Advances in Nursing Science, author of a few books, and manager or co-manager of several websites/blogs, including INANE. She is an Author-in-Residence for Nurse Author & Editor.

BackgroundCurrent terminology systems for structured reporting in pathology are more or less focused on tumor pathology. They have not been compiled in a systematic approach, therefore they gather terms of very different granularity. Generic models for terminology development could help in establishing reference terminologies for all fields of anatomic pathology.The core principle of those models is the ontological structure of native speaking terminology. By analyzing the PathLex interface a generic terminology model will be derived.MethodsFor each element template of PathLex its possible generic nature and its value set was analyzed, looking for the uniqueness or multiplicity of the values in the value sets.The generic terms were mapped to SNOMED-CT terms using "ArtDecor".ResultsThe 488 PathLex element templates for Anatomic Pathology (AP) observations can be reduced to 53 generic templates, leaving out only 17 templates very specific for organ and/or disease. Among those 53 templates 28 are describing UICC-TNM staging, ICD-O-classification, and grading. Further 15 templates describe the results from marker investigations. Almost all of the terms, used in those templates could be mapped to SNOMED CT.All of the generic elements have their "organ specific" counterparts by assigning them to one of 20 organs and invasive or noninvasive cancer, respectively. Studying the structure of generic and specific terms it becomes obvious that any AP observation- occurs always in a context- consists of three basic elements (target of observation, property of observation, additional qualifiers, added by value sets for coded data).ConclusionsIf a machine-readable terminology is aimed to preserve all the information of native speaking, then two principal solutions exist:- ystematic consideration of all the aspects mentioned above in each single term- ocusing on the generic elements of terms and combining this with the structure of communication, reflecting the non-obvious elements of the terminology.The fastest way for establishing an interface terminology is the first approach, which lists all of the terms needed for e.g. a checklist in a comprehensive manner (precoordination).However, if the list of terms and problems increases, or new requirements have to be met, considerable difficulties may arise in keeping the terminology consistent and complete.The second, postcoordination approach offers some advantages. It does not have limitations in the organ- or disease specificity, and it keeps the number of terms limited, making them more easily to survey.

BackgroundPsychiatrization may contribute to the deterioration of public mental health observed in recent decades. The cultural aspects of psychiatrization can be understood as a form of concept creep (progressive expansion) of mental health terminology. Over time, concepts of psychopathology have expanded to encompass a broader range of human experiences, potentially diluting their meaning. Accordingly, previous research has shown a gradual decline in the semantic severity of the word trauma. However, the semantic severity of anxiety and depression has been increasing over time.ObjectiveThis study aims to replicate and explain the increases in semantic severity of anxiety and depression by distinguishing between disorder constructs (clinical terms) and lay emotional constructs (everyday emotional terms) and assessing how their semantic severity changes over time. Additionally, we investigate whether mental health discourse and the broader context in which these terms appear influence these changes.MethodsWe analyzed the semantic severity of anxiety, depression, and trauma using leading paragraphs from 4.7 million New York Times articles (1970-2023). We extended this analysis to broader disorder constructs (both generic terms, such as mental illness, and specific terms, such as schizophrenia) and lay emotional constructs (eg, sad and worried). A word2vec model was used to estimate the degree to which these terms appeared in mental health–related contexts, and a Mental Health Index was developed to quantify shifts in discourse. Regression analyses were conducted to assess whether changes in semantic severity were influenced by time and context.ResultsThe semantic severity of depression increased significantly (τ=0.35; P<.001), while anxiety (τ=0.08; P=.42) and trauma (τ=0.10; P=.33) showed no significant change. However, when controlling for context, severity was consistently higher in mental health–related contexts, and the effect of time became nonsignificant. For specific mental disorder constructs (eg, schizophrenia), semantic severity decreased over time, whereas generic disorder terms (eg, mental illness) remained stable. Lay emotional constructs became increasingly associated with mental health discourse but showed no clear severity trend.ConclusionsThe increasing semantic severity of depression appears to be driven by its growing presence in mental health discourse rather than an inherent shift in meaning. The declining severity of specific, but not generic disorder constructs suggests that the overall representation of mental disorders remains severe, despite its expansion to less serious experiences. Meanwhile, ordinary emotions such as sadness and fear are increasingly discussed in mental health contexts. These trends highlight the evolving cultural framing of mental health and suggest that psychiatrization is shaping public perceptions of emotional experiences.

Policy issues are aggregates of individual practical problems. However, practical problems demand that we think about specific details, while aggregating such problems at the policy level entails abstraction and generalization. Can considering a policy issue from a specific versus a general perspective change a person’s view about the issue? The current research explores this question in the context of allocating scarce health resources such as vaccines and transplant organs. Specifically, we study how describing allocation policies in general versus specific terms affects people’s preferences between more medically efficient allocations and more equal allocations. The results from four studies indicate that describing allocation outcomes in specific terms (e.g., allocate kidneys to “50 people who have been on the waiting list for a kidney transplant for 1 year/6 years”) increases the preference for efficient allocation, while describing allocation principles in general terms (e.g., “those on the waiting list for a shorter/longer period of time should have priority”) promotes equal allocation. These findings have important implications for designing and communicating health policies to the public.

Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia de depresión y de sus dimensiones en soldados de un batallón colombiano.&#x0D; Métodos: Estudio transversal en 410 soldados a quienes se les aplicó un cuestionario de depresión. Se calcularon las prevalencias para cada dominio y para la depresión en general y la asociación con factores de interés.&#x0D; Resultados: La prevalencia de depresión fue del 8,8%; las prevalencias de los dominios fueron: 11,7% para la autoestima negativa, 24,6% para la ideación suicida, 56,8% para pobre imagen social, 26,3% para afecto negativo, 23,4% para desesperanza y 19,3% para evitación.&#x0D; Conclusión: Refinar los procedimientos de tamizaje en salud mental en el proceso de selección de los jóvenes soldados, para que sean desacuartelados aquellos aspirantes propensos a la depresión.

In this article, we review some of the historical trends and events that suggest the scope and power of the Information Revolution. We speculate how these trends and events may be interpreted in new models or theories of human affairs, in perhaps the greatest and most fundamental change since the latter part of the eighteenth century for human transactions of power of all kinds—political, economic, and military—and at all levels—global, national, and factional. Traditional hierarchies, based on the control of information, are being eroded and bypassed. At a time of great change, where institutions can provide for some measure of stability and continuity, many may be unable to function effectively in the face of a new abundance of public information. The relationships between information, the information technologies, and conflict are complex and not universally positive, but positive effects are evident and pose apparent opportunities to harness the information technologies to inhibit conflicts. We describe some of these opportunities in both general and specific terms. In general terms, we sketch the landscape of possibilities out to the horizon of the information technologies as they are currently understood, without regard to the limitations of politics, costs, or time. In these sketches we look at worlds in which anyone can listen or watch or broadcast anything that they want on global networks. We conclude with an initial agenda for research into issues that need to be addressed to properly support a program for exploring and investing in high‐leverage information initiatives to open societies and enhance human rights, thereby inhibiting conflict and promoting a more peaceful world. These are the issues that we will need to fully appreciate if we hope to make wise judgments in harnessing the Information Revolution to the positive and peaceful ends sought by most of the world public.

A router represents an entry point into most networks as well as the primary communications device used to move data between networks. This chapter examines methods of router access in both general and specific terms. The discussion of router access in general terms will be applicable to products manufactured by different vendors. If an organization uses routers manufactured by another vendor, one should check the vendor’s router manual for the access security functionality of that router. Once access is gained into a router, the operating system of the device can provide a further level of protection capability that one can use for additional router access security. Additional methods supported by many routers include Telnet access and the use of the trival file transfer protocol to store and transmit system images and configurations files to and from routers and workstations.

ملخص البحث بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم حمدا لله وصلاة وسلاما على رسول الله وعلى آله وصحبه ومن والاه. وبعد: فإن هذا البحث يتکلم عن (تحويل القبلة ودلالات تکرار الأمر بها) نظرات جديدة تمزج بين التفسير والحديث واللغة, ضمن إطار تأصيلي تحليلي. وجعلته مشتملا على مقدمة وتمهيد وثلاثة مباحث. وتضمنت المقدمة الاستهلال وأهمية الموضوع وسبب اختياره والدراسات السابقة عليه والجديد الذي أتى به ومنهجي في البحث. وفي التمهيد ذکرت أقوال المفسرين في الآيات التي تساعد على فهم الموضوع من حيث هو کتحويل القبلة وأهمية الکعبة والحکمة في تحديدها ووجوب التوجه إليها. وأهمية ذلک وأهمية الصلاة. ثم اشتمل البحث على ثلاثة مباحث: المبحث الأول: التکرار اللفظي الخاص ودلائله المبحث الثاني: التکرار اللفظي العام ودلائله المبحث الثالث: التکرار الضمني ودلائله وأما الجديد الذي طرحه البحث فهو أن التکرار ليس بألفاظ خاصة فحسب. کما ذکر المفسرون. وإنما قدمت الآيات ألفاظا عامة ستة. ثم ألفاظا خاصة خمسة. ثم ألفاظا ضمنية خمسة. وبينت کيف تضافرت هذه الألفاظ وتعاضدت لتخرج لنا صورة حوارية رائعة. وذکرت دلائل هذه الألفاظ العامة والخاصة والضمنية. وما اشتملت عليه من حکم يعجز البشر عن مضاهاتها, وتحديات لا يستطيع أحد مواجهتها. ولم يستطع - ولن يستطيع - أحد عبر أربعة عشر قرنا أو يزيد أن يحرف برغم کثرتهم وکثرة محاولاتهم التي لم تنقطع على مر الزمن . وبينت أنه لم يحظ حکم شرعي بمثل ما حظي به تحويل القبلة. وبلاغة التعبيرات الدقيقة المختصرة التي تصلح أن تکون قواعد حوارية يجب أن يحفظها کل مسلم يختلط بغير المسلمين. وبينت في الخاتمة الأمور التي توصلت إليها في هذا البحث. وأتبعت الخاتمة بفهرس للموضوعات وفهرس للمصادر والمراجع التي اعتمدت عليها. وأسأل الله تعالى أن يجعل هذا العمل خالصا لوجهه الکريم متقبلا بفضله وکرمه. الباحث: ا. د : أبو بکر علي الصديق . أستاذ التفسير وعلوم القرآن بکلية التربية والعلوم الأساسية جامعة عجمان . دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة Research Summary In the name of of Allah the Merciful Thanks to God and prayer and peace upon the Messenger of Allah and his followers and companions. Either after, this research is about (the transformation of the Qibla and the signs of repeating it) new opinions that gather interpretation, Hadith and language, within the framework of analysis. And I included an introduction, a preface and three questions. The introduction included the importance of the topic, the reason for its selection, the previous studies, the new ones, and its methodology in the research. In the preface I mentioned the words of the interpreters in the verses that help to understand the subject in terms of the conversion of the Qiblah and the importance of the Kaaba and the wisdom in identifying and and our duty to follow it, importance of that and the importance of prayer. Then the research included three questions: The first question: Verbal repetition and its evidences. The second question: the general verbal repetition and its evidences. The third question: implicit repetition and its evidences. The unprecedented that the research offers is that the repetition is not about special verbs only. As mentioned by the interpreters. But the verses offered six general terms, then five special words. And showed how these words correlated and differed to bring us a wonderful dialogue picture. Indications of these general, specific and implicit terms were stated. And what it contained in the rule of human beings can not match them, and challenges that can't be faced - and could not and can't – by anyone through fourteen centuries or more despite the many attempts that did not break over time. The research pointed out that it did not have a legitimate judgement as much as the conversion of the Qibla had. And the eloquence of the brief and concise expressions that serve as rules of dialogue should be preserved by every Muslim mixed with non-Muslims. In the conclusion I brought to light the results that I found in this research. The conclusion was followed by an index of topics and an index of the sources and references on which it was based. I ask Allah to make this work pure for His holy face and to receive His thanks and generosity. INT: Dr. Abu Bakr Ali Al-Siddiq Professor of Interpretation and Sciences of the Quran at the Faculty of Education and Basic Sciences Ajman University. State of United Arab Emirates

W HY is it difficult to arouse interest in history? What can be done to make United States history seem more alluring? To the average person United States history is rather an impersonal matter. Textbooks, because they are prepared for use in many sections of the country, are of necessity written in general terms. The broad movements-political, social, and economic-apparently have little application to a limited community. Therefore it is easy for a student to ask, Why should I be interested in history which tells me nothing of a local character? Unless this objection is overcome, history will continue to be a dry, lifeless subject for many. At the opposite extreme from these broad historical discussions dealing with the country as a whole, or with large sections of it, is local history. As its name implies, local history deals with a limited area. The history of a state, a county, a township, a city, or any other local area, or of the people within the section, is a phase of local history. It is the story of that which happens at home, and it may be the means of making courses in American history, both in high school and in college, absorbing to teachers and students alike. Studying local history is the means of learning the application of the wider national movements to conditions near at hand. A large central phase of history is broken down into parts as they apply to Scott County in Iowa, Lancaster County in Pennsylvania, or Worth County in Missouri, or any of the thousands of other local communities. Furthermore, the study of many phases of American history has not yet been completed. Since the nation as a whole is made up of these many local units, a knowledge of the history of what happened in the parts (counties, townships, towns, etc.), as it could be