A Thermal Conductivity Device for Detecting the Discontinuous Release of Carbon Dioxide by Insects1

Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. roy.tk@mayo.eduCapnography: Clinical Aspects. Edited by J. S. Gravenstein, M.D., Dr. med. h.c., Michael B. Jaffe, Ph.D., and David A. Paulus, M.D. Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2004. Pages: 441. Price: $120.00.Practicing anesthesiologists and intensivists have come to take capnography for granted in the monitoring of surgical and critically ill patients. Although many standard anesthesiology texts contain a chapter about this important and useful technique, a comprehensive up-to-date treatment of the subject is not easy to find. Capnography: Clinical Aspects fills this void.The book is a multiauthored effort edited by two academicians and an engineer working in industry. The editors acknowledge significant overlap between chapters and characterize the book as more of a “symposium” than a textbook. There is adequate continuity of style between chapters, but as with any book written in this format, some chapters are more interesting to read than others.The book is organized into four parts. The first part is meant to be clinical and describes the interaction of respiratory, cardiovascular, and metabolic systems in determining the amount of exhaled carbon dioxide as measured by capnography. This is followed by parts on basic carbon dioxide physiology, the history of capnography, and the technology of capnography.The clinical part is divided into four sections: Ventilation, Circulation, Metabolism, and Organ Effects. The ventilation section is further divided into subsections on breathing assessment, airway management, monitoring of ventilation, weaning, and special situations. The first chapter (written by two of the editors) is a well-written introduction to time-based capnogram interpretation, the most commonly used form of capnography in the operating room setting. Of particular value is the introduction to the volume-based capnogram, a topic not commonly detailed in anesthesia texts. Subsequent chapters discuss capnography outside the operating room and in the prehospital setting for airway management, in particular to confirm tracheal intubation. The chapter on airway management in the intensive care unit includes a section on using capnography to confirm proper orogastric and nasogastric tube placement. The chapter on airway management in the operating room includes sections on confirming tracheal intubation and recognizing endobronchial tube placement.The chapter describing the use of capnography to monitor ventilation during anesthesia includes interesting comments on the Food and Drug Administration checkout relevant to capnography. This chapter also includes sections on equipment troubleshooting and how capnograms can be affected by positioning, pulmonary pathology, and several particular situations such as one-lung ventilation, laparoscopy, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, tourniquet release, and high-frequency jet ventilation. Other chapters in this section focus on the use of capnography during transport and how it can be used in the field as a way to avoid deleterious effects of unintentional hyperventilation after intubation.A particularly comprehensive chapter describes the unique physiology and technological limitations of capnography in neonates and infants. Other chapters describe capnography in the sleep laboratory, capnography as a feedback tool for behavioral therapy in various disorders, and how the capnogram is affected by alterations in physiologic and technical limitations in high- and low-pressure environments.Chapters are also included on sedation and noninvasive ventilation. These chapters are valuable for their descriptions of how end-tidal carbon dioxide can be sampled during spontaneous ventilation in nonintubated patients and the clinical utility and limitations of end-tidal carbon dioxide as a method of estimating arterial carbon dioxide tension (PCO2) in noninvasive ventilation.Chapters relevant to critical care describe the use capnography to optimize tidal volume, alveolar minute ventilation, and positive end-expiratory pressure to wean patients from mechanical ventilation. These chapters also describe the use of volumetric capnography to assess carbon dioxide production and how the capnogram is affected by positive end-expiratory pressure, unilateral lung injury, tracheal gas insufflation, and various high-frequency ventilation modes.The circulation subsection includes chapters on how end-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring can be used to assess circulatory status during cardiopulmonary resuscitation and for prognostication during cardiac arrest in medical patients as well as the use of end-tidal and tissue carbon dioxide monitoring techniques to assess oxygen delivery in shock states. This section includes an elegant physiologic description of changes in alveolar dead space with pulmonary embolism and the use of capnography in diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary emboli and gas embolization in addition to a chapter on the utility of volumetric capnography for estimating arterial PCO2in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome.The chapter on noninvasive pulmonary blood flow measurement describes complete and partial carbon dioxide rebreathing techniques as alternatives to invasive cardiac output monitoring. A variety of clinical scenarios illustrating the use of these techniques sets this chapter apart from other descriptions of this topic.The metabolism subsection includes a single chapter describing alterations in normal physiology induced by surgery and anesthesia that affect carbon dioxide elimination. The chapter discusses alterations in ventilation, circulation, and carbon dioxide metabolism that are influenced by temperature alterations, various anesthetic techniques, and pharmacologic agents as well as particular intraoperative situations such as laparoscopy, tourniquet release, vascular cross clamping, and cardiopulmonary bypass.The final chapter of the ventilation section describes the effects of hypercapnia and hypocapnia on tissue oxygenation and perfusion, focusing on the central nervous system, respiratory system, and cardiovascular system. This is an excellent introduction to the effect of carbon dioxide at the organ, tissue, and cellular/molecular level and could have been included in the section on physiology.The physiology section includes a chapter on carbon dioxide pathophysiology, which describes inherited and acquired mitochondrial and enzyme disorders as well as pharmacologic agents that alter carbon dioxide production. The chapter also discusses carbon dioxide embolism and the increase in PCO2during apnea testing for brain death. There is a complete if somewhat standard chapter on acid–base physiology, followed by an excellent description of how capnography can provide information on ventilation/perfusion mismatch from a physiologic standpoint, including examples of various disease states. Subsequent chapters describe clinical correlates of alterations in normal time and volume capnographic tracings and how capnograms can provide clues to the underlying pathophysiology.A particularly interesting chapter in this section summarizes a biomedical engineering approach to illustrate the underlying anatomical and physiologic processes that result in a normal volumetric capnogram. A mathematical model that accounts for bronchial airway structure, gas convection and diffusion, and the carbon dioxide release from alveolar capillary blood is shown to generate a computed washout curve that shows remarkable agreement with an experimentally measured capnogram from a healthy human subject. This illustrates the utility of physiologic modeling as a useful tool for investigating potentially complex pathophysiologies without placing patients at risk.A unique historical section describes the evolution of time and volumetric capnography with many interesting anecdotes, as well as a first-person account by Smalhout, an early proponent of capnography. A selection of capnographic tracings corresponding to clinical events that he made over a 20-yr period is one of the highlights of this book. Without reading this section of the book, few people would realize that the impetus for carbon dioxide analyzer development was to investigate the cause of death in patients who turned out to be rebreathing due to a channeling issue through carbon dioxide absorption devices, or that carbon dioxide analyzers enabled a reduction in mortality for polio patients by allowing clinicians to titrate ventilation to expired carbon dioxide instead of adjusting ventilation based on their weight.The technological section fulfills the editors’ wishes for providing clinicians with information necessary to appreciate the mechanism, design, and limitations of devices for measuring carbon dioxide. Various chapters address technical specifications and standards (e.g. , accuracy, range, drift, response time, interfering gases, alarm systems, calibration) for carbon dioxide analyzers and describe technological limitations for flow measurement, required to estimate carbon dioxide production. Another chapter describes various methods for carbon dioxide detection, including infrared, photoacoustic, colorimetric, and mass spectrometry methods. Unfortunately, Raman spectroscopy is not included simply because it is not currently commercially available. This chapter also includes a discussion of mainstream versus sidestream carbon dioxide analyzers.The book ends with a mini-atlas of capnographic waveforms typifying various physiologic states, which is useful although not exhaustive.As the editors acknowledge, there is a fair amount of redundancy; as an example, the fact that highly sensitive colorimetric carbon dioxide indicators can yield false positives with esophageal intubation is mentioned in multiple chapters along with the fact that false negatives in cardiac arrest have led to the removal of correctly placed endotracheal tubes. Other recurring themes include the predictive value of end-tidal carbon dioxide in assessing arterial PCO2and the utility of volumetric capnography. In general, I found the multiple perspectives to be helpful instead of confusing or irritating. As with any book, the onus is on the reader to formulate his or her judgment with the assistance of the most recent literature.The overall introduction to the book and the introduction chapters for each section are very short and could have been used to provide the reader with a more substantial description of the basic concepts or objectives of each section. The section and subsection titles are somewhat arbitrary, and some chapters are in fact assigned to their own sections. Although the terminology is relatively consistent, the book could also use a more comprehensive list of abbreviations and acronyms used in various chapters. I found most of the typographical and page-setting errors to be minor (with the exception of a reference to “title” volumes). In spite of these limitations, the book admirably maintains its focus on capnography; readers interested in the latest tissue oxygen tension (PO2) monitoring techniques, for example, will have to look elsewhere.In summary, Capnography: Clinical Aspects is a very readable introduction to a topic addressed by few textbooks. It is useful as a reference primarily because of its comprehensive index and contains much information useful to the practitioner of critical care as well as anesthesiology. It addresses the physiologic and technological considerations that need to be understood to make capnography a clinically useful tool and should be standard reading for those who depend on it as a basic anesthetic monitor.Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. roy.tk@mayo.edu

Regulation of gonad development and respiratory metabolism associated with food availability and reproductive diapause in the rice bug Leptocorisa chinensis

Methane hydrate exists in huge amounts in certain locations, in sea sediments and the geological structures below them, at low temperature and high pressure. Production methods are in development to produce the methane to a floating platform. There it can be reformed to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide, in an endothermic process. Some of the methane can be burned to provide heat energy to develop all needed power on the platform and to support the reforming process. After separation, the hydrogen is the valuable and transportable product. All carbon dioxide produced on the platform can be separated from other gases and then sequestered in the sea as carbon dioxide hydrate. In this way, hydrogen is made available without the release of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, and the hydrogen could be an enabling step toward a world hydrogen economy.

BackgroundMosquitoes transmit many important diseases including malaria, dengue and yellow fever. Disease transmission from one vertebrate host to another depends on repeated blood feedings by single mosquitoes. In order for the mosquito to acquire the blood that it needs to complete oogenesis, the insect must locate a suitable host. Olfactory cues (including carbon dioxide) released by the host and detected by the mosquito are the primary signals that vector insects use for host location. Previous studies have suggested that the physiological status - including bacterial, fungal, viral and Plasmodium infections - can modulate aspects of behavior in haematophagous insects.MethodsStandard electrophysiological techniques were used to record extracellular responses from the receptor neurons located in sensilla found on the maxillary palps of the insects. The recording microelectrode was inserted through the cuticle at the base of an individual sensillum and the extracellular electrical signals obtained from the three neurons within the sensillum were recorded. Stimulations consisted of 2 s pulses of the desired concentrations of CO2 or dosages of 1-octen-3-ol.ResultsAccordingly, we were interested in determining whether Plasmodium infection affects the sensitivity of those peripheral olfactory sensors that are involved in host-seeking in mosquitoes. Our studies indicate that infection of female Anopheles stephensi with Plasmodium berghei does not alter the response characteristics of the neurons innervating the maxillary palp sensilla that respond to the attractants carbon dioxide and 1-octen-3-ol. Although the response characteristics of the peripheral sensory neurons are not affected by infection status, we found that the age of the mosquito alone does affect the threshold of sensitivity of these neurons to carbon dioxide. The proportion of older insects (21–30 d post-emergence) that responds to 150 ppm carbon dioxide is higher than the proportion that responds among younger insects (1–10 d post-emergence).ConclusionsAnopheles stephensi infected with Plasmodium berghei exhibit sensitivities to stimulation with carbon dioxide and 1-octen-3-ol similar to those of uninfected mosquitoes. However, the age of the infected or uninfected mosquito does affect the threshold of sensitivity of these neurons to carbon dioxide.

A hyperglycaemic response is elicited in adult males of the american cockroach, Periplaneta americana, within 60 min of anaesthetizing insects using nitrogen, chilling, or diethyl ether. Hyperglycaemia is also produced as a result of handling insects without anaesthesia. Insects which have been anaesthetized with carbon dioxide do not exhibit a marked change in haemolymph sugar concentration.

Previous article No AccessModifications of Activity Rhythm of Periplaneta americana (L.), Induced by Carbon Dioxide and NitrogenCharles L. RalphCharles L. Ralph Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Volume 32, Number 1Jan., 1959 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/physzool.32.1.30152293 Views: 2Total views on this site Citations: 9Citations are reported from Crossref Journal History This article was published in Physiological Zoology (1928-1998), which is continued by Physiological and Biochemical Zoology (1999-present). Copyright 1959 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:D. D. Branscome, P. G. Koehler, F. M. Oi Influence of carbon dioxide gas on German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) knockdown, recovery, movement and feeding, Physiological Entomology 30, no.22 (Jun 2005): 144–150.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3032.2005.00439.xJeffrey W Harris, Joseph Woodring, John R Harbo Effects of carbon dioxide on levels of biogenic amines in the brains of queenless worker and virgin queen honey bees ( Apis mellifera ), Journal of Apicultural Research 35, no.22 (Mar 2015): 69–78.https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.1996.11100915J. Machin, M. J. O’donnell, P. Kestler Evidence Against Hormonal Control of Integumentary Water Loss in Periplaneta Americana, Journal of Experimental Biology 121, no.11 (Mar 1986): 339–348.https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.121.1.339Akira Tanaka Effects of carbon-dioxide anaesthesia on the number of instars, larval duration and adult body size of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica, Journal of Insect Physiology 28, no.1010 (Jan 1982): 813–821.https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1910(82)90092-0J.P. Woodring, C.W. Clifford, R.M. Roe, B.R. Beckman Effects of CO2 and anoxia on feeding, growth, metabolism, water balance, and blood composition in larval female house crickets, Acheta domesticus, Journal of Insect Physiology 24, no.6-76-7 (Jan 1978): 499–509.https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1910(78)90051-3William M. Banks, Alease S. Bruce, Harold T. Peart The effects of temperature, sex and circadian rhythm on oxygen consumption in two species of cockroaches, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 52, no.11 (Jan 1975): 223–227.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-9629(75)80157-5John Brady The Physiology of Insect Circadian Rhythms, (Jan 1974): 1–115.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2806(08)60129-0Robert B. Suter, Kenneth S. Rawson Circadian Activity Rhythm of the Deer Mouse, Peromyscus : Effect of Deuterium Oxide, Science 160, no.38313831 (May 1968): 1011–1014.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.160.3831.1011R. De G. Weevers A Lepidopteran Saline: Effects of Inorganic Cation Concentrations On Sensory, Reflex and Motor Responses in A Herbivorous Insect, Journal of Experimental Biology 44, no.11 (Feb 1966): 163–175.https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.44.1.163

Aquatic biomass and carbon dioxide trapping

The benefits of increased carbon dioxide concentration in enclosed plant environments are well known, but there has been only limited experimentation with increasing carbon dioxide on a field scale. The purpose of this study was to artificially enrich a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crop with carbon dioxide using a known release rate and to determine the variation in canopy carbon dioxide concentration with respect to meteorological conditions.Carbon dioxide was metered into the crop canopy while concentrations of carbon dioxide and other meteorological parameters in and above the canopy were measured. The crop had a leaf area index of 2.34, and the crop surface was aerodynamically rough. Turbulence caused considerable short‐term fluctuation in concentrations, but concentrations of 450 to 500 ppm at three‐fourths plant height were maintained with a release rate of 222.6 kg/ha/hour (198.6 Ib/acre/hour). Photosynthetic recovery of applied carbon dioxide was calculated from data obtained in the crop during its release and from data describing its behavior in a semiclosed plexiglass chamber just before the carbon dioxide release. Calculated recoveries ranged from 7 to 33% over a range of solar radiation levels from 205 to 1,095 W/m2. The release produced unexpectedly high carbon dioxide concentrations 4 m above the soil surface (due to vertical movement), and these concentrations varied little with windspeeds up to 200 cm/sec at the 150‐cm level. The daily net photosynthate production increased by an estimated 35%.

The results of the present investigation can be summarized as follows:—1. Cold-hardiness in insects depends on the physiological state of the organism; the most resistant are the phases in diapause (prepupae of Croesus septentrionalis, eggs of Lymantria dispar, pupae of Acronyctinae); not so hardy are the caterpillars of Lasiocampa quercus stopped in their development and prepupae of Agrotis segetum; practically non cold-hardy are developing (or growing) insects, viz., the full-grown larvae of Calliphora erythrocephala, the growing caterpillars of Loxostege sticticalis and Agrotis segetum.2. The difference in the cold-hardiness of these three groups depends on the specificity of their cellular respiration. Growing insects show in their cellular respiration the prevalence of oxydases, the activity of which is connected with characteristics of their cellular structures; in cold-hardy insects the cellular respiration is closely connected with the anoxybiotic processes caused by the dehydrases; their activity is not bound up with the structural elements of the cells, but is closely connected with the presence of non-saturated fat-acids (Dixon, 1929; Meldrum, 1934) peculiar to insect fats.3. The respiration of growing or developing insects is entirely and rapidly destroyed by narcotics, cyanide and low temperatures; the effect of these agents is due to the destruction of the cellular structures. The respiration of cold-hardy insects is characterised by its definite thermostable part and is also resistant to narcotics (or cyanide, Bodine, 1934). Destroying the cellular structures does not affect that respiration. Cold-hardiness increases with the increase of the percentage of thermostable respiration.4. Freezing of the protoplasmic water causes the death of an insect only in the absence of thermostable respiration. Many insects in diapause (characterised by a high percentage of thermostable respiration) can be frozen without any lethal effect (Pyrausta nubilalis, Croesus septentrionalis, Lasiocampa quercus). It is clear that the freezing of the free protoplasmic water cannot be considered as an obligatory cause of “ anabiosis.”5. The quantity of fat does not show any direct connection with thermostable respiration and cold-hardiness in insects. It is probable that the important factor is the quality of the fats, namely, the rôle of non-saturated fat-acids. The increase of cold-hardiness in insects after dehydration can be connected with the changes in cellular respiration; the same can be said regarding the general connection of the water content of the protoplasm and cold-hardiness.

Capturing rogue carbon

Выполнены измерения чистого экосистемного обмена (NEE) на мочажинном участке грядовомочажинного комплекса олиготрофного болота «Мухрино» с разделением на составляющие компоненты: валовую первичную продукцию (GPP) и дыхание экосистемы (R eco ). Измерения проводились в течение самого тёплого (июль), переходного (сентябрь) и самого холодного (октябрь) месяцев летне-осеннего сезона методом автоматизированных камер с 30-минутным интервалом. Это позволило получить подробную информацию о суточном ходе и сезонной динамике показателей. Для исследованных месяцев по отдельности и полевого сезона в целом осуществлен корреляционный анализ связи между гидрометеорологическими параметрами и величиной потоков. Для дыхания экосистемы (R eco ) наиболее высокий уровень корреляции за сезон выявлен с температурой почвы (0.88), температурой воздуха (0.71) и уровнем болотных вод (-0.73); за июль наиболее сильная корреляция выявлена с температурой воздуха (0.70) и температурой почвы (0.68); за сентябрь -с температурой почвы (0.81) и уровнем болотных вод (-0.78); за октябрь -с фотосинтетически активной радиацией (-0.59). Валовая первичная продукция (GPP) сильнее всего коррелирует с фотосинтетически активной радиацией (PAR) -в июле коэффициент корреляции равен -0.95, в сентябре -0.86, в октябре -0.79, в целом за полевой сезон -0.89. Чистый экосистемный обмен (PAR), аналогично GPP, наиболее тесно связан с PAR. В июле коэффициент корреляции NEE и PAR составляет -0.91, в сентябре -0.74, в октябре -0.71, за весь полевой сезон -0.73. Стоит подчеркнуть, что для каждого рассматриваемого месяца влияние внешних факторов на потоки уменьшается с течением времени от июля к октябрю, достигая минимума корреляции в самом холодном месяце. Ключевые слова: Дыхание экосистемы (R eco ); валовая первичная продукция (GPP); чистый экосистемный обмен (NEE); фотосинтетически активная радиация (PAR); LI-8100A; уровень грунтовых вод (WTL); автоматические камеры; Мухрино; болотные экосистемы Западной Сибири; круговорот углерода. Global climate change is one of the most important and promising phenomena to study in actual time. One of the key causes of global climate change is increasing the greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere [IPCC, 2023]. The main greenhouse gases are methane, carbon dioxides and nitric oxide, which contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming [Lashof, Ahuja, 1990] . Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is one of the most significant and widespread gases involved in the planet's global carbon cycle [Lashof, Ahuja. 1990] . At the same time, living organisms play a key role in creation of atmosphere composition. Autotrophic organisms use a carbon dioxide to build their body structures, including complex organic compounds. During ecosystem functioning, the part of the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere through organism respiration, while another part is released through the decomposition of dead organic matter. Carbon dioxide may also be produced through natural and anthropogenic processes. Peatland ecosystems play a significant role in the planet's carbon cycle, both locally and globally. Peatlands in their natural undisturbed state are a significant long-term carbon sink 1 . However, the process of carbon deposition is not constantin different years, peatlands may serve either as carbon sink or source 2 . The main factor stimulating the carbon sequestration by peatland ecosystems is climatic conditions [Harenda et al., 2018; Bond-Lamberty et al., 2018] . Peatlands are the second most significant carbon stock on Earth and the largest on land. Despite covering only 2.84% of the Earth's land surface, the amount of soil organic carbon stored in them accounts for about one-third of all soil organic carbon on Earth. Peatlands in the northern hemisphere play a particularly important role in carbon sequestration, with an estimated accumulated carbon quantity of ~473-621 Gt of carbon [Yu et al., 2010] . The largest area of peatlands in Russia is located in Western Siberia, estimated at ~42% of the total Russian area [Vomperskiy et al., 1994; Sheng et al., 2004]. The territory of Western Siberia is featured to a high share of peatlands in original undisturbed state, making them an ideal location to study the impact of global changes on peatland biogeochemical functioning worldwide. The carbon balance of peatlands is mainly determined by two processes: photosynthesis and respiration [Harenda et al., 2018] . The main factors influencing the CO 2 flux from peatlands are photosynthetically active radiation, atmospheric air temperature (T avg ), soil temperature (T soil ), and water table level (WTL) [Miao et al., 2013;

Living deep in the ground and surrounded by darkness, soil insects must rely on the chemicals released by plants to find the roots they feed on. Carbon dioxide, for example, is a by-product of plant respiration, which, above ground, is thought to attract moths to flowers and flies to apples; underground, however, its role is still unclear. This gaseous compound can travel through soil and potentially act as a compass for root-eating insects. Yet, it is also produced by decaying plants or animals, which are not edible. It is therefore possible that insects use this signal as a long-range cue to orient themselves, but then switch to another chemical when closer to their target to narrow in on an actual food source. To test this idea, Arce et al. investigated whether carbon dioxide guides the larvae of Western corn rootworm to maize roots. First, the rootworm genes responsible for sensing carbon dioxide were identified and switched off, making the larvae unable to detect this gas. When the genetically engineered rootworms were further than 9cm from maize roots, they were less able to locate that food source; closer to the roots, however, the insects could orient themselves towards the plant. This suggests that the insects use carbon dioxide at long distances but rely on another chemicals to narrow down their search at close range. To confirm this finding, Arce et al. tried absorbing the carbon dioxide using soda lime, leading to similar effects: carbon dioxide sensitive insects stopped detecting the roots at long but not short distances. Additional experiments then revealed that the compound could help insects find the best roots to feed on. Indeed, eating plants that grow on rich terrain – for instance, fertilized soils – helps insects to grow bigger and faster. These roots also release more carbon dioxide, in turn attracting rootworms more frequently. In the United States and Eastern Europe, Western corn rootworms inflict major damage to crops, highlighting the need to understand and manage the link between fertilization regimes, carbon dioxide release and how these pests find their food.

Insect herbivores use different cues to locate host plants. The importance of CO2 in this context is not well understood. We manipulated CO2 perception in western corn rootworm (WCR) larvae through RNAi and studied how CO2 perception impacts their interaction with their host plant. The expression of a carbon dioxide receptor, DvvGr2, is specifically required for dose-dependent larval responses to CO2. Silencing CO2 perception or scrubbing plant-associated CO2 has no effect on the ability of WCR larvae to locate host plants at short distances (<9 cm), but impairs host location at greater distances. WCR larvae preferentially orient and prefer plants that grow in well-fertilized soils compared to plants that grow in nutrient-poor soils, a behaviour that has direct consequences for larval growth and depends on the ability of the larvae to perceive root-emitted CO2. This study unravels how CO2 can mediate plant–herbivore interactions by serving as a distance-dependent host location cue.

The first in the series of Azuberths Game Changer publications “Synergy of the Conventional Crude Oil and the FT-GTL Processes for Sustainable Synfuels Production: The Game Changer Approach-Phase One Category” a.k.a. (DOI: 10.23880/ppej16000330) is targeted at reducing 80 per cent CO2 emissions from the internal combustion engines by upgrading from the conventional crude oil refinery products to the synthetic fuels products (ultra-low-carbon fuels). This paper will focus on the complete elimination of the remaining 20 per cent CO2 emissions (i.e. to achieve zero- CO2 emissions) in transportation and power generating internal combustion engines as well as in the other centralized emissions/emitters such as petroleum industry flare lines, industrial process and big technology industries scrubber flue gas, et cetera. This invention stems from similar biblical quote {Isaiah 6:8-New International Version (NIV)} which states, and then I heard the voice of the Lord saying, “Whom shall I send? And who will go for us?” And I (Isaiah) said, “Here am I. Send me!” Laterally, in this case I (Azunna) said, “Here am I. Please use me”. Hence the aftermath, IJN-Universal Emissions Liquefiers is a plug and play units for all categories of pollutants discharge into the atmosphere. The work is motivated by the scientific facts that (i) The release of CO2 from automotive exhaust effluents, industry vents and flue gas emissions into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) accumulation causing global warming hence climate changes issues such as flooding of coastlines/sea-rising, melting of the glaciers, disrupted weather patterns, bushburning/wildfire, depletion of Ozone layer, smog and air pollution, acidification of water bodies, runaway greenhouse effect, etc. (ii) Every gas stream (e.g., flue gas) can be made liquid by e.g. a series of compression, cooling and expansion steps and once in liquid form, the components of the gas can be separated in a distillation column. (iii) Captured liquefied gases can be put to various uses, especially carbon dioxide (CO2 ), which can be used for the production of renewable energy via Synfuels such as the e-fuel/solar fuel. The natural atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and only about 0.1% natural greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide, organic chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and many others. Although a small amount, these greenhouse gases make a big difference - they are the gases that allow the greenhouse effect to exist by trapping in some heat that would otherwise escape to space. Carbon dioxide, although not the most potent of the greenhouse gases, is the most important because of the huge volumes emitted into the air by combustion of fossil fuels (e.g., gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, coal, natural gas). In general, the major contributors to the greenhouse effect are: Burning of fossil fuels in automobiles, deforestation, farming processing and manufacturing factories, industrial waste and landfills, increasing animal and human respiration, etc. The increased number of factories, automobiles, and population increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations to escape from the earth atmosphere and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming. The petroleum industry well sites vent/flare gases (methane, ethane, propane, butanes, H2 O (g), O2 , N2 , etc.). Internal combustion engines (automobiles-cars, vehicles, ships, trains, planes, etc.) release exhaust effluents (containing H2 O (g), CO2 , O2 , and N2 ); steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere. In general, Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a “flue”, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. The emitted flue gas contains carbon dioxide CO2 , carbon monoxide CO, sulphur oxide SO2 , nitrous oxide NO and particulates. Furthermore, GTL plants produce CO2 , H2 O and waste heat, while both pyrolysis and gasification plant generate gaseous products consisting of (a mixture of non-condensable gases such as H2 , CO2 , and CO and light hydrocarbons “e.g. CH4 ” at room temperature, as well as H2 O (g), O2 and complex hydrocarbons e.g. C2 H2 , C2 H4 , etc.). In general, all combustion is as a result of air-fuel mixture burning (i.e. air or oxygen mixing directly with biomass/ coal or with liquid/gaseous hydrocarbon inside internal combustion engines), releases carbon dioxide and steam (H2 O) back into the atmosphere as well as producing energy for work. Specifically, during combustion, carbon combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The principal emission from transportation and power generating internal combustion engines is carbon dioxide (CO2 ). The level of CO2 emission is linked to the amount of fuel consumed and the type of fuel used as well as the individual engine’s operating characteristics. For instance, diesel-powered engines have higher emission than petrol/gasoline-powered engines. Although emphasis is places more on CO2 , this investigation is ultimately concerned with the real-time liquefaction of all the components of gaseous release/emissions -related to air pollution/health problem. It is believed that the mortality rate from air pollution is eight times larger than the mortality caused by car accidents each year. Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) and sulphur dioxide (SO2 ). All the exhaust effluents gases/flue gas and vent/flare gases are captured by liquefying them and then put to various uses, to achieve “Net zero” emissions. Fundamentally, the objective of the present invention is to develop a compact device (Universal Emissions Liquefiers) that can be retro-fitted onto the exhaust tailpipe-end of the internal combustion engines (diesel-powered, gasoline-powered, and hybrid automobiles-cars, vehicles, SUV’s, trucks, motor cycles, tri-cycles, portable electric generators, sea and cargo ships/ boats, trains, planes, rockets, etc.) and outlet of industrial machines that release flue gases through exhaust/scrubber channels, as well as crude oil, refined products storage tanks that vent greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, coal processing units/ plants and turn them into liquid { CO2 (l), N2 (l), O2 (l), etc.} or powdered components or chemically transform them in realtime with selective catalysts to any other specific compound, e.g. treating CO2 with hydrogen gas (H2) can produce methanol (CH3 OH), methane (CH4 ), or formic acid (HCOOH), while reaction of CO2 with alkali (e.g. NaOH) can give carbonates (NaHCO3 ) and bicarbonates (Na2 CO3 ). Nitrogen (N2 ) to ammonia (NH3 ) or Hydrazine (N2 H4 ), and molecular oxygen (O2 ) to hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), et cetera. Alternatively, in new automobiles designs, the universal emissions liquefiers’ device can be directly net-worked on the floor alongside the catalytic converters and may eliminate the need for muffler/silencer/resonator. This is achieved by the application of any of the five main gas capture/separation technologies: Liquid absorption, Solid adsorption, Membrane separation (with and without solvent- organic or inorganic), Cryogenic refrigeration/distillation, and Electrochemical pH-swing separation or their combination to selectively trap and liquefy the individual pollutants. According to the fact from CarBuster, almost 0.009 metric tons of carbon dioxide is produced from every gallon of gasoline burned, which means that the average car user makes about 11.7 tons of carbon dioxide each year from their cars alone

The only mode of transmission of Nyctotherus ovalis from one cockroach to another was shown experimentally to be by way of ingestion of the encysted stage of the ciliate. The cysts were remarkably resistant, being able to remain viable for 21 weeks at −18°C. if kept in dry faeces, or for 20 weeks in wet faeces at 4°–25°C. Their life was much shorter if kept at 37°, 25°, or 4°C. under dry conditions, or at −18°C. under wet. The cysts could withstand freeze-drying, or storage in pure oxygen, carbon dioxide or nitrogen, at least for short periods.Nyctotherus ovalis could excyst in any of the four species of cockroach which were tested (Periplaneta americana, Blatta orientalis, Blattella germanica, Blaberus giganteus), irrespective of the species of origin. The ciliate could establish an infection in a very young host; in a host which had ingested infected faeces once only; in hosts which were in a very dry or a very humid environment; in a host maintained at a temperature far below that required for in vitro excystation, subject only to the temperature being high enough for it to be possible for the cockroach to digest its meal; but Nyctotherus could not establish an infection in cockroaches which were about to moult, because there was no movement nor digestion of food in the gut. There was no evidence of an instinctive drive on the part of the cockroach to eat infected faeces. There was some evidence that the Blatta and Blattella types of trophozoite and cyst were associated with the presence or absence respectively of a type of flora typically associated with the hind-gut of Blatta.The process of excystation took as little as 3 hr. for completion in vivo, but this time was increased if faecal material was ingested along with cysts. The process was most rapid in the smallest cockroach (Blattella) and slowest in the largest (Blaberus). The process, once started, could be completed in vitro, but at a considerably slower pace. Digestion of the knob on the cyst by the cockroach's enzymes seemed to be necessary if the ciliate was to emerge.A small proportion of cysts hatched after passage through the gut of a locust, but no means were found of increasing this proportion, and an infection was never established. Excystation did not occur in any other arthropod, nor in the frog, which were tested.Cysts recovered from the mid-gut of a cockroach completed the process of excystation in vivo more rapidly if they were put in a buffer medium of pH approximating that of the mid-gut than if they were put in saline. Passage of the cysts through the foregut of the cockroach had no function in stimulating excystation: the agent seemed to be the trypsin secreted by the mid-gut caeca, or the products of its activity. The many failures in the series of experiments which are reported here can probably be attributed to contaminating bacteria.The complete process of excystation could occur in vitro if the cysts were incubated with faecal matter from the cockroach. The optimum temperature was 32°C., and 2 days were needed for a significant number to hatch. No means were found of shortening this time, nor any agents which could be substituted for the faecal matter. The stimulus seemed to be provided by particular anaerobic bacteria of the faeces which were present in some cockroaches, but absent in others.Work by other authors on excystation in other Protozoa is reviewed. It was concluded that in vivo excystation of Nyctotherus ovalis occurs as a result of stimulation of the cyst by the digestive trypsin of the cockroach, and not by the products of the unidentified bacterium which is active in vitro. Cysts originating from Blaberus seemed to be less sensitive to this bacterial factor than some of those from Periplaneta or Blatta.This work was done during the tenure of a Research Studentship awarded by by the Agricultural Research Council. I am deeply indebted to Dr P. Tate for his encouragement and counsel at all stages of the work.