A Systematic Review of the Political, Social, and Cultural Legacies of the 1923 Greek–Turkish Population Exchange

This qualitative phenomenological study examined the contributions of Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries’ Organizations (ARBOs) to the development of Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries (ARBs) in Surigao del Norte, Philippines. Anchored on phenomenology and employing narrative-phenomenological analysis, the study engaged ten purposively selected ARBs from various ARBOs in the province. Data were collected through semi-structured, in-depth interviews, allowing participants to describe their lived experiences and perceptions of ARBO roles in their personal and community development. The analysis revealed that ARBOs contribute significantly to ARB development through social, economic, technological, political, cultural, regulatory, and legal dimensions. Socially, they foster community cohesion and solidarity. Economically, they provide market linkages, cooperative financing, and livelihood support. Technologically, they facilitate access to agricultural innovations and equipment. Politically, they enable representation and advocacy. Culturally, they preserve heritage and promote indigenous practices. Regulatory and legal roles include assisting in compliance and providing legal literacy. However, challenges such as financial limitations, communication gaps, and insufficient capacity-building opportunities persist. The study concluded that stronger institutional partnerships, improved internal communication, and enhanced capacity development are necessary to maximize ARBOs’ positive impact. The findings provide actionable insights for policymakers, ARBO leaders, and development stakeholders in crafting programs and policies that align with agrarian reform objectives and the Sustainable Development Goals. Keywords: Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries, Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries’ Organizations, Social Dimension, Economic Dimension, Technological Dimension, Political Dimension, Cultural Dimension, Regulatory Dimension, Legal Dimension

Cybersecurity education does not only confine to the technical studies embodying network security, malware analysis and reverse reengineering, application security, and operating systems security. The increasing numbers of Cyberterrorism and incidents of hacktivism suggest that Cybersecurity pertains to politics, religion, and culture. Drawing on globalization shaped by the economic, legal, political, religion, and social dimensions, extant literature discloses that infusing social science, cultural and political studies into Cybersecurity education could better prepare students for the job market by making students realize the complexity in the real world. This study presents the efforts of integrating cultural, social, and political dimensions into the Cybersecurity curriculum in a public, regional university in the Midwest of the United States. In particular, this study presents the approaches of introducing intelligence analysis coursework that requires students to understand the analysis of competing hypotheses for drawing conclusion related to the possible Cyberattack from a foreign nation, identify the cultural differences across nations for comprehending the hacking motivation of a different nation, and recognize individual's cognitive and cultural biases during the process of evaluating a cultural event.

While international law has typically waxed and waned in feminist favours, contemporary feminist engagements reveal a strongly critical, reflective thrust about the costs of engaging international law and the quality of ostensible gains. To inform this reflection, the article draws on feminist scholarship in international law – and a specific feminist campaign for the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security in Northern Ireland – to distill three distinct feminist understandings of international law that underpin both theory and advocacy. Firstly, international law is understood as a system of rules to which states are bound; secondly, as an avenue for the articulation of shared feminist values; and thirdly, as a political tool to advance feminist demands. The study finds that feminist doctrinalists, and those working within the institutions of international law, share concerns about the resolution’s legal deficiencies and the broader place of the Security Council within international lawmaking. These concerns are, however, largely remote for local feminist activists, who recognized in the resolution important political resources to support their mobilization, their alliances with others and ultimately, it is hoped, their engagement with state actors. The article concludes that critical reflection on feminist strategy in international law is usefully informed by more deliberate consideration of its legal, political and normative dimensions, as well as an awareness that these dimensions will be differently weighted by differently situated feminist actors.

Part I Introduction: Sinisa Rodin and Tamara Perisin, Application of International Law as a Litmus Test for the Application of EU Law in Southeast Europe.- Part II Judicial Application of Specialised Fields of International Law in Southeast Europe: Mislav Mataija, The Unfulfilled Potential of Stabilisation and Association Agreements before Southeast Europe Courts.- Tamara Perisin, Judicial Application of WTO Law in Southeast Europe.- Lana Ofak, Application of the Aarhus Convention in Southeast Europe.- Part III National Reports on the Judicial Application of International Law: Sanja Bogojevic, 'Europeanisation' of the Judiciary in Southeast Europe.- Gentian Zyberi and Semir Sali, The Place and Application of International Law in the Albanian Legal System.- Zlatan Meskic and Darko Samardzic, Application of International and EU Law in Bosnia and Herzegovina.- Ivana Bozac and Melita Carevic, Judicial Application of International and EU Law in Croatia.- Kushtrim Istrefi and Visar Morina, Judicial Application of International Law in Kosovo.- Marija Risteska and Kristina Miseva, Application of International Law in Macedonia.- Dusan S Rakitic, Judicial Application of International Law in Montenegro.- Mirjana Drenovak Ivanovic and Maja Lukic, Judicial Application of International Law in Serbia.- Janja Hojnik, Judicial Application of International and EU Law in Slovenia.- Part IV Conclusions: Steven Blockmans, Judicial Application of International and European Law in Southeast Europe.

The Khmer Rouge under their leader Saloth Sar (“Pol Pot”) were in power in Cambodia between April 1975 and January 1979.1 They came into control of the country after a long and brutal civil war2 an...

Human Rights Education (HRE) involves more than knowledge of rights and wrongs. It developed to enable individuals to act in an informed way to protect human rights or to prevent human rights viola-tions. HRE is therefore both empowering and restraining in order to protect human dignity. Freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading practices is central to human dignity. This article starts from the universal and absolute prohibition of torture under international human rights law. While considering the contradictive relationship between war and torture the article focuses on the war against terror as defined by the US administration as new type of warfare requires a new think-ing in the law of war. From this point of departure the article elaborates the challenges to human rights education developing from the debate on the legalization of torture. While comparing the dis-cussion and application of law in Germany and U.S.A. the author argues for a more coherent interna-tional human rights protection system and for the establishment of a comprehensive accountability mechanism within international human rights law. Particular attention will be paid to artificial loopholes in international law which facilitate a lack of accountability. The article also focuses on the arguments for legalizing and legitimating torture so as to highlight how HRE can be employed to foster the norma-tive understanding of human rights such as the right to freedom from torture. By highlighting the moral, political, legal and social dimensions to human rights standards, it will be shown that HRE can help to close loopholes in international law and counteract arguments against the absolute prohibition of tor-ture.

Social, political, and technological dimensions of the sustainability evaluation of a recycling network. A literature review

International development law (IDL) is the branch of international law that deals with the rights and duties of states and other actors in the development process. Its original content was premised on a particular generally accepted understanding of develop- ment. Under the pressure of the problems of development that arose during the 1970s and 1980s this general agreement on the key issues disintegrated. As a consequence, the consensus on the content of international development law also began to break down. Today, competing idealised views of development shape the current debate about the content of international development law. What can be termed `the traditional view' maintains that development is about economic growth. It argues that the challenges of economic development can be distinguished from other social, cultural, environmental and political issues in society, including human rights. What I call `the modern view' has a holistic understanding of development. It argues that development should be viewed as an integrated process of change involving economic, social, cultural, political and environmental dimensions. The two perceptions differ in their understanding of the substantive content of IDL and the importance they attach to the principle of sovereignty and in their view of the relationship between national and international law in the law applicable to the development process.

This chapter examines recent developments supporting a recently emerging rule of customary international law that cultural objects belonging to foreign States and on temporary loan for an exhibition are immune from seizure. It assesses, in particular, the 2004 UN Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, a declaration on jurisdictional immunities of State-owned cultural property in the Committee of Legal Advisers on Public International Law of the Council of Europe, a Draft Convention by the International Law Association on immunity from suit and seizure for all cultural property on loan, as well as legal developments in the United States, Europe, and Australia. These developments strengthen the existence of the rule of customary international law on immunity from seizure for cultural State property on loan, though they also confirm certain exceptions to that rule, namely that the rule does not extend to those cultural objects which have been the subject of a serious breach of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law, or which are already subject to return obligations under international or European law.

Today, by going through development in various political, economic, cultural and social dimensions and integrating all of them under sustainable development, countries are trying to achieve this important goal by utilizing all their existing mechanisms, including natural and God-given resources, especially the copper industry, because the existence of numerous opportunities in the copper mining sector and its related industries has created a driving force for the development of international economic cooperation and the expansion of countries' exports, which in turn provides the cause of sustainable development in the international legal system. Therefore, the present article attempts to apply a descriptive and analytical method to the research question of how the copper industry is affected by international law on sustainable development in the experience of Iran and China. In response to this hypothesis, it is proposed that "it seems that in China's experience, two completely distinct and purposeful strategies, including the "green mining strategic strategy" and "responsible mining", have been designed and formulated to influence the copper industry from international sustainable development law, while a review of Iran's programs in this regard shows that not only does it not have a specific and purposeful program like China's, but even a model version of them is not seen in Iran's development policies." The conclusion of the article shows that China's two completely distinct and purposeful strategies have caused this country to take serious steps towards operationalizing the principles of sustainable development of international law, which in itself can be a promise of a future with reduced carbon, an issue that is clearly seen in Iran's program.

Globalizing What:Education as a Human Right or as a Traded Service? Katarina Tomasevski Introduction Globalization tends to be described as an extralegal phenomenon.1 This image does not apply to education for which there is international law, albeit composed of two parallel and disconnected legal regimes. International human rights law defines education as a human right; international trade law defines it as a service. 2 International human rights law is older than the law on trade in services, and domestic educational laws tend to be even older.3 Most of these define education [End Page 1] as compulsory and also as a right.4 Accordingly, they specify the corresponding governmental obligations. Large budgetary allocations for education reflect the legally defined extensive role of the state in education,5 and teachers are often the largest segments of the civil service.6 Against that role of the state in providing and/or financing education, globalization (defined as interaction across national borders unmediated by the state) fosters disengagement from education. The key facet of globalization, liberalization, is predicated on increasing the privatization of education,7 which demands decreased involvement of the state. In the 1990s, [End Page 2] this facet was built into the international law on trade in services, resulting in two conflicting legal regimes for education. International human rights law mandates state intervention, requiring it to ensure, at least, free and compulsory education for all children. International law on trade in services legitimates the sale and purchase of education, excluding those who are unable to purchase it, thereby jeopardizing the key human rights requirements that at least primary education should be free and compulsory. This article examines the practice of states in accommodating this legal duality of education. It focuses on the developing regions and countries in transition8 because the poverty of families, communities, and countries precludes access to education for many, if not most, unless education is free, namely provided or financed by the state. Its point of departure is international human rights law, which defines human rights—including the right to education—as universal. Its translation into reality would entail a minimum entitlement to education throughout the world, to be secured through international cooperation. Thereby governments would collectively comply with their human rights obligations. Consequently, globalization of education would be guided by a universal human rights obligation to ensure that education is free and compulsory for all school-age children in the world. However, the creation of international human rights law during the Cold War divided human rights into civil and political on the one hand, and economic, social, and cultural, on the other hand. Although education belongs in both categories, it also has been categorized as an economic, social, and cultural right. Its civil and political dimensions require respect of freedom; its social and economic dimensions mandate state provision and/or financing of education, while education as a cultural right often necessitates its affirmation as a collective right.9 [End Page 3] For the majority of countries in the world that recognize economic, social, and cultural rights,10 the corresponding human rights obligations presuppose governments' willingness and ability to raise revenue and devote the maximum available resources to human rights. An important aim is to ensure that education is free at the point of use, at least for compulsory education. Therein originates the conflict of laws. While international human rights law recognizes every child's entitlement to free education, international trade law makes access to education dependent on the ability to pay.11 Free trade does not have safeguards for the rights of the poor, least of all, for poor children. Hence, state intervention to safeguard free education for the millions of poor children necessitates corrective steps for the free market in education, facilitated by international cooperation. However, global development finance policies work in the opposite direction, as does trade in educational services.12 These counterpoised pressures, especially upon the governments of poor, impoverished, or indebted countries, result in an increasing incidence of for-fee rather than free education. [End Page 4] The phenomenon is not new; it was marked memorably by the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund's (UNICEF) "Adjustment with a Human...

Individual Accountability for Crimes against Humanity: Reckoning with the Past, Thinking of the Future Andrea Bianchi (bio) The recent decisions of the House of Lords in the Pinochet case 1 revived interest in the issue of individual responsibility for crimes of international law. 2 The wide array of issues and highly sensitive political elements underlying the case prompted a variety of comments and reactions, in which the legal dimension has been either used instrumentally to foster conflicting political goals or confined to technical discussion within specialized legal circles. In fact, the extradition request by Spain to obtain the surrender of General Augusto Pinochet, head of state of Chile from 1973 to 1990, and the ensuing judicial proceedings in the United Kingdom should be a cause, not only for international lawyers but also for the public at large, to give appropriate consideration to the issue of whether individuals, including top political leaders, may be held accountable for crimes against humanity, and if so, under what circumstances. Although legal proceedings in the United Kingdom are still under way at the time of writing, the Pinochet case illustrates how to reckon with the past, while thinking of the future. The emergence of crimes against humanity as a distinct category of norms as well as the principle of individual responsibility have taken firm root in the international community, and their implementation is crucial for shaping any future international public order based on the rule of law and respect for fundamental human rights. The recent establishment of ad hoc international tribunals and the prospective International Criminal Court [End Page 97] (ICC) cannot by themselves ensure the effective prosecution of individual crimes of international law. The jurisdiction of these tribunals is limited to particular situations in specific countries (Yugoslavia and Rwanda), and the effectiveness of the latter will depend on how many states ratify its statute. This is why domestic courts should effectively complement, when the circumstances so warrant, the action of international tribunals in enforcing international criminal law. Yet many hurdles exist that need be overcome in order to allow domestic courts to enforce individual responsibility. Some relate to the way in which international law is incorporated into domestic law, some others originate from such doctrines as foreign sovereign immunity and act of state. The aim of this paper is to show that individuals may be held accountable for crimes against humanity before international and domestic courts and that many of the above-mentioned obstacles can be removed simply by interpreting correctly the normative standards of contemporary international law. After a cursory account of the legal proceedings against General Pinochet in the United Kingdom, section two will examine the emergence of the notion of individual accountability under international law in an historical perspective. The role of international and national tribunals in the prosecution of individual crimes of international law will be evaluated in sections three and four respectively. Section five is taken up with the analysis of the two legal doctrines which can considerably restrain the action of domestic courts in enforcing international criminal law: foreign sovereign immunity and act of state. Finally, in section six, with a view to setting the agenda for the future consolidation of international criminal law, some fundamental policy goals, which should guide the legal and political action of the international community in the years to come, will be highlighted. The Pinochet Case General Pinochet entered the United Kingdom in September 1997. Just before his return to Chile, after undergoing surgery in London, he was arrested on the basis of two provisional arrest warrants issued by UK magistrates, at the request of Spanish courts, 3 pursuant to the European Convention on Extradition. 4 General Pinochet’s counsels immediately moved to have the two arrest warrants quashed by the High Court. On October 28, the Divisional Court of the Queen’s Bench Division ruled 5 that the first arrest warrant was invalid and the crimes for which extradition had been requested by Spain were not extradition crimes under the UK Extradition Act. 6 With regard to the second arrest [End Page 98] warrant, the Lord Chief Justice held, interpreting the relevant provisions of the UK State Immunity Act, that General Pinochet...

PurposeThis viewpoint adds context and variety to the “decolonizing international business” debate by engaging in a discussion of the decolonial thinking approach and proposing a broader framework for analysing the link between international business (IB) activities on the one hand and colonisation and decolonisation on the other. The purpose of this paper is to inspire a more intensive engagement of IB scholarship with issues related to colonisation and decolonisation.Design/methodology/approachThis paper involves taking a reflexive review on recent calls to decolonise IB, contextualising and extending the decolonisation debate in the academic field of IB.FindingsThis paper argues that the current discussion of decolonisation should be extended beyond the decolonial thinking approach and its focus on knowledge and the cultural dimension towards a broader framework that covers both colonisation and decolonisation as well as the respective economic, political, social and cultural dimensions. It introduces the varieties of colonisation and decolonisation approach, which considers the complexities of the phenomenon and covers the economic, social, political and cultural dimensions.Research limitations/implicationsThrough its focus on foreign market expansion, international trade, global value chains and formal and informal institutions in the business environment, the academic field of IB provides several starting points for research on the link between IB activities and colonisation and decolonisation. The decolonisation debate can be used to inspire future research in IB, for example, with respect to the role of multinational corporations in colonisation and neo-colonisation processes and the implications of the emerging multipolar world order for IB.Practical implicationsIB scholars will be better informed when engaging in discussions on decolonisation and the decolonise IB project. This paper suggests considering both colonisation and decolonisation processes as well as the respective economic, political, social and cultural dimensions in research and teaching. The varieties of colonisation and decolonisation approach provides a comprehensive and flexible alternative framework to analyse issues related to colonisation and decolonisation.Social implicationsA balanced view of the implications of colonisation and decolonisation with respect to economic, political, social and cultural dimensions may suitably be incorporated in the field of IB and contribute to tackling grand societal challenges. This applies likewise to past, current and future processes of colonisation and decolonisation.Originality/valueThis paper contextualises and adds a new perspective and variety to the current debate on decolonising IB. This is valuable for engaging in discussions on decolonisation and future conceptual and empirical research on the topic.

The article analyzes the phenomenon of the urban landscape, which is a notable phenomenon in modern Chinese art history. In this direction, the researchers consider not only the genre originality of the urban landscape, but also artistic models of the representation of the city image in painting. The urban landscape acquires independent forms within the framework of Chinese art through comparative practices of matching and comparison with Western artistic genesis. Already in the early 2000s, Chinese art historians were actively looking for new models for presentation of traditional art. At the same time, their desire to preserve traditional artistic achievements necessitated the identification of innovative and modern forms of Chinese art, which became notable artistic phenomena during the second half of the twentieth century. In Chinese “urban” painting, one of the central themes is the issue of modernization, which develops from two perspectives: a) urbanistic, which is aimed at the artistic generalization of various forms of urban life and landscape; b) in the direction of retro, which expresses a steady interest in the images of “old” China — urban landscapes and pictures of urban life, representing the aesthetics of the disappearance of traditional “small” China towns. For the current stage of development of fine arts in China, the image of the city in the context of regionalism and ethnic specificity is of great importance. The images of the city are directly related to the characteristic models of visual representation of the regions of China. Regions differ both in ways and norms of life (for example, small towns and conglomerate metropolitan areas) and in the variety of landscapes (for example, sea-side, mountain and plain). This factor is the cause of additional difficulties in defining the urban landscape as a genre of art. Certain features are analyzed on the example of the works of such outstanding masters of Chinese fine arts Yan Wanliang and Dai Shihe.

In recent decades, contemporary cities have been exposed to numerous impacts, primarily population growth and climate change, resulting in a condition where the overall quality of their living environment, as well as the quality of life of their inhabitants, increasingly takes on negative aspects. Green infrastructure, as a planning concept, has long been recognized as a measure for establishing a healthier living framework in urban landscapes while respecting the characteristics and potential services of natural and nature-based ecosystems. The search for establishing a regulatory framework for green infrastructure, applying a modern, multidisciplinary, and scalable approach, is a process unfolding worldwide. Based on the principles of international and national conventions and directives, as well as an analysis of all administrative and physical constituent elements of green infrastructure, the Green Infrastructure Strategy of the City of Belgrade was developed and adopted by the city governance. The strategy identifi ed key challenges in implementing the concept and defi ned specifi c objectives, outlining strategic guidelines for achieving urban ecosystem services. Through the implementation of measures and activities prescribed by the strategy, the process of forming a comprehensive regulatory and professional framework for the preservation and development of the city's green infrastructure has begun, contributing to the creation of a resilient Belgrade urban landscapes.