A system analysis to assess the effect of low-cost agricultural technologies on productivity, income and GHG emissions in mixed farming systems in southern Ethiopia

Addressing the climate change on agricultural sector as an approach to increase rice productivity, which at the same time also mitigate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, economically feasible, socially acceptable and hence appropriate for policy support, is a special challenge. This study provided Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) technology to address the multi-dimensional complexity in agriculture system including climate, economic and technology for farmers and the community. The research locations were selected on particularly major irrigated rice fields at three districts in Central Java, i.e. Banjarnegara, Purbalingga and Banyumas District. Demo plots were used to compare the Farmers practice with CSA technology. The CSA technology used were: leaf color chart to apply N fertilizer, paddy soil test kit for determining basic fertilizer, organic matter amendment and intermittent irrigation. This study shows that CSA reduced GHG emissions than Farmers practice between 7-23% of Global Warming Potential and achieved economic benefit between 42-129%. Introducing CSA to the farmers and community is recommended to cope with climate change as the adaptation and mitigation actions. Despite very clear advantages in reducing GHG emission and climate change adaptation, many constraints must be faced by the implementation of CSA in the field.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from unsustainable land-use practices around the world contribute significantly to anthropogenic climate change. Growing population pressure and low efficiency of agricultural production systems in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) trigger the expansion of agricultural land into natural ecosystems, which leads to deforestation and land degradation, and causes GHG emissions. At the same time, prolonged droughts and increasingly erratic weather patterns due to climate change jeopardise food security in SSA countries such as Kenya.

This article evaluates the importance of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in promoting sustainable agricultural development and ensuring food security and mitigating the negative impacts of climatic changes on agricultural productivity in India. A range of CSA technologies, practices and services have been initiated in climate-smart villages as adaptation strategies for coping with climate risks to ensure stability and sustainability in agricultural production. The farmers using CSA adaptation strategies were found to have achieved higher output, yield and return compared to those who did not. There are exciting opportunities for scaling out and immense potentials of these strategies for enhancing crop yields and farm incomes and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Strengthening agricultural extension service and agricultural finance to achieve smart farming practices/technologies by linking climate finance to traditional agricultural finance could play a significant role in scaling out the CSA practices and technologies to make agriculture more sustainable and climate-resilient and a viable source of livelihood and food security for millions of farmers in the country. Zero budget natural farming as a climate-resilient farming system can enhance food and nutritional security, enabling farmers to improve soil fertility and yields through lower costs, risk and irrigation requirements, thus protecting the ecosystem by improving soil organic matter, water retention and biodiversity and reducing air and water pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions.

A variety of climate-smart agriculture technologies, practices, and services have been introduced in climate-smart villages as adaptation strategies to cope with climate risks and ensure stability and sustainability in agricultural production. Farmers who utilize climate-smart agriculture adaptation strategies have been shown to achieve higher output, yield, and return compared to those who do not. There are promising opportunities to scale out these strategies and immense potential to enhance crop yields and farm incomes while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
 Strengthening agricultural extension services and agricultural finance by linking climate finance to traditional agricultural finance could play a significant role in scaling out climate-smart agriculture practices and technologies. This would make agriculture more sustainable and climate-resilient, thereby becoming a viable source of livelihood and food security for millions of farmers in the country. Zero budget natural farming is a climate-resilient farming system that can enhance food and nutritional security while allowing farmers to improve soil fertility and yields at lower costs, risks, and irrigation requirements. This system protects the ecosystem by improving soil organic matter, water retention, and biodiversity, while reducing air and water pollution as well as greenhouse gas emissions.

Soil organic carbon (SOC), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and water footprint (WF) are the key indicators of environmental sustainability in agricultural systems. Increasing SOC while reducing GHG emissions and WF are effective measures to achieve high crop productivity with minimum environmental impact (i.e. a multi-pronged approach of sustainable intensification (SI) and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to achieve food security). In conventional agricultural systems, intensive soil tillage and removal of crop residues can lead to increase negative environmental impact due to reduce SOC, GHG emission and high water consumption. Conservation agriculture (CA) based conservation tillage systems (CTS) with crop residue retention is often suggested as a resource conserving alternative to increase crop productivity without compromising soil health and environmental sustainability of cereal cropping systems. The environmental impact of CTS in terms of SOC, WF and GHG emissions nonetheless remains understudied in Bangladesh. A two-year field experiment was carried out to evaluate the impacts of CTS with retention of crop residue on SOC accumulation, GHG emission and WF in wheat cultivation of Bangladesh. In the experiment, CTS such as zero tillage (ZT) and minimum tillage (MT) were compared with the conventional tillage (CT) practice. Result observed that the SOC accumulation in the soil was 0.11 t ha−1, 0.97 t ha−1, and 1.3 t ha−1 for CT, MT and ZT practices, respectively. A life cycle GHG emission estimation by farm efficiency analysis tool (FEAT) calculated 1987, 1992 and 2028 kg CO2eq ha−1 for ZT, MT and CT practices, respectively. Among the studied tillage options, lowest WF was achieved by MT (570.05 m3 t−1) followed by ZT (578.56 m3 t−1) and CT (608.85 m3 t−1). Since the results are in favor of CTS, this study recommends MT and ZT practice to reduce negative environmental externalities in wheat cultivation in Bangladesh. In comparison between the methods, the MT, which retains crop residue (20 cm), and involves principles of CA, is suitable for both CSA and SI of wheat cultivation in Bangladesh due to its ability to increase SOC accumulation, prevent both water loss, and GHG emission without compromising yield.

Cotton is the second largest crop of Pakistan in terms of area after wheat and is being suffered by multiple shocks over the time due to conventional agricultural management practices, climate change, and market failures. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) was introduced by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 2010, as an innovative cleaner production alternative to conventional farming that aimed at increasing the efficiency of natural resources, resilience, and productivity of agricultural production system, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The adverse effects of climate change on cotton production at the farm and regional level can be minimized by using CSA practices and technologies. The present study investigated the financial performance and explored the impact of CSA through sustainable water use management on cotton production in Lower Bari Doab Canal (LBDC) irrigation system of Punjab, Pakistan by using Cobb-Douglas production function. The adopters of CSA in cotton cultivation were identified by conducting six focus group discussions. Data were collected through well-structured questionnaire from 133 adopters of CSA and 65 conventional cotton growers for the cropping season 2016–2017. It was found that water-smart (raising crops on bed, laser land levelling, conjunctive use of water and drainage management), energy-smart (minimum tillage), carbon-smart (less use of chemicals) and knowledge-smart (crop rotation and improved varieties i.e., tolerant to drought, flood and heat/cold stresses) practices and technologies of CSA were adopted by the cotton farmers in the study area. Most of the farmers were of the view that they are adopting CSA practices and technologies due to the limited supply of canal water, climate change, drought-prone, massive groundwater extraction, rapidly declining groundwater table and increasing soil salinity over the time. Results revealed that uniform germination, higher yield and financial returns, the concentration of inputs and increase in resource use efficiency are the main advantages of CSA. The econometric analysis showed that implementation of CSA practices and technologies as judicious use of water and fertilizer, groundwater quality, access to extension services, and appropriate method and time of picking have a significant impact on the gross value of cotton product (GVP). The findings of the study would be helpful for policy makers to formulate policies that can minimize farmer’s financial burden to adopt CSA technologies and implement for scaling out in Punjab and beyond.

Editorial Preparing for an uncertain future with climate smart agriculture by Karen Ross, Secretary, California Department of Food and Agriculture C alifornia is the nation’s leading agricultural state, with 76,400 farms producing more than 400 commodities with a farm-gate value of $54 billion. The mission of the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) is to promote and protect agriculture. It’s a complex job — and one that is getting more complex as the climate changes. Karen Ross sustainability, build resilience to climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions: The State Water Efficiency and Enhancement Program (SWEEP) is an emergency drought program imple- mented at the direction of Gov. Jerry Brown to assist farmers in moving to efficient water irrigation systems that save water, conserve energy and reduce green- house gas emissions. To date, SWEEP has funded 233 projects totaling almost $18 million with $10.5 mil- lion in matching grower funds. The program is built With the current drought in its fourth year, on a strong scientific foundation and supported by a California has already started to experience some of collaborative partnership involving other agencies, the anticipated impacts of climate change. resource conservation districts, the California State With drought, we have seen economic University (CSU) system and UC ANR Cooperative losses including job losses, fallowed land, Extension (UCCE). The academic institutions play and greater demand for a limited amount a key role in providing technical evaluations of ap- of water. A concerted approach is ur- plications for water savings and reductions in energy gently needed to prepare California agri- consumption. culture for future climate change impacts. The Dairy Digester Research and Development One essential approach is embracing Program, launched in 2014, provides incentives for and implementing the concept of climate dairy operations to install manure digesters. Digesters smart agriculture. capture methane from dairy lagoons, allowing the gas Practicing climate smart agriculture to be used to generate electricity. Methane is a short- means following three principles: de- lived climate pollutant that is 28 times more potent veloping agricultural systems that are as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. In 2015, resilient to climate change; reducing CDFA awarded $11.1 million for the development of greenhouse gas emissions from agricul- five digesters at California dairies. Matching funds by ture; and preparing for climate change in a way that developers totaling $19 million were allocated to these keeps farms productive and profitable. projects. The digester program is supported by several I heard a lot about climate smart agriculture during scientific experts from the University of California a recent visit to the Netherlands with a delegation of as well as a technical advisory sub-committee. The agricultural leaders from California. The Netherlands program highlights the many opportunities to use ag- is a leading agriculture distributor in Europe and the ricultural byproducts for multiple benefits, including world’s second largest (after the United States) agri- the generation of electricity. cultural exporter. Climate smart agriculture is already strongly integrated into Dutch economic and food se- curity strategies. Our delegation not only heard about the threats from higher precipitation, but also about how overly dry conditions in the summer threaten the stability of peat dikes, which dry up to the point that they may simply float away, compromising the levee structure in a region where most of the land is below sea level. In California we can prepare for such multi-faceted impacts through our own climate smart agricul- ture initiatives. At CDFA, we have a variety of pro- grams and efforts underway to support agricultural 4 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 70 , NUMBER 1 Evett Kilmartin More-efficient irrigation technologies — like this drip system in an almond orchard in Yolo County — save water, conserve energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Feed and manure composition and qualities in an organic and conventional dairy farm network in Germany (22 farm pairs) were analysed. Related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from enteric fermentation and from animal excretions were calculated by using two methods each. Feeding and feedstuff quality were farm specific. On average, organic dairy cows received significantly less concentrates, maize silage and straw and significantly more pasture and hay than conventional dairy cows. No differences were found for feeding grass silage. Results for methane (CH4) emissions from enteric fermentation depended strongly on the calculation methodology. They were higher when feed quality was considered as an input parameter (average GHG emissions 3822 and 3759 kg CO2-eq. cow−1 a−1 on organic and conventional farms) as opposed to when only feed intake was considered (2852 and 3112 kg CO2-eq. cow−1 a−1). Differences between the methods were particularly prominent when high amounts of fibre-rich feedstuff were used and, with regard to product-related emissions, at lower milk yields. GHG emissions from manure are also directly connected with feed intake and quality. Manure qualities and storage conditions on the farms were highly variable. On average, the related GHG emission potential was similar in liquid and solid manures (32 kg CO2-eq. t−1 fresh matter). Since feed quality management on farms influences milk yield, enteric CH4 emissions and manure composition, it should be part of advisory concepts that aim at reducing GHG emissions in milk production. Technical changes in manure storage and handling offer an additional GHG reduction potential.

Impact of climate smart agriculture (CSA) through sustainable irrigation management on Resource use efficiency: A sustainable production alternative for cotton

Effect of production system and farming strategy on greenhouse gas emissions from commercial dairy farms in a life cycle approach

The effect of feed demand on greenhouse gas emissions and farm profitability for organic and conventional dairy farms

We steered the soil microbiome via applications of organic residues (mix of cover crop residues, sewage sludge + compost, and digestate + compost) to enhance multiple ecosystem services in line with climate-smart agriculture. Our result highlights the potential to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions from agricultural soils by the application of specific organic amendments (especially digestate + compost). Unexpectedly, also the addition of mineral fertilizer in our mesocosms led to similar combined GHG emissions than one of the specific organic amendments. However, the application of organic amendments has the potential to increase soil C, which is not the case when using mineral fertilizer. While GHG emissions from cover crop residues were significantly higher compared to mineral fertilizer and the other organic amendments, crop growth was promoted. Furthermore, all organic amendments induced a shift in the diversity and abundances of key microbial groups. We show that organic amendments have the potential to not only lower GHG emissions by modifying the microbial community abundance and composition, but also favour crop growth-promoting microorganisms. This modulation of the microbial community by organic amendments bears the potential to turn soils into more climate-smart soils in comparison to the more conventional use of mineral fertilizers.

Most of Kenya’s population’s livelihoods and agri-food systems rely on rain-fed agriculture making them vulnerable to climate change. The adverse effects of climate change on agricultural production have necessitated the promotion of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies help guide actions needed to transform and reorient agricultural systems to effectively support development and ensure food security by increasing farmers’ resilience to climate change. This study sought to ascertain the current state of CSA practices among Kakamega County's smallholder farmers to identify the main drivers of CSA adoption. Stratified sampling was used to select six sub-counties to represent the county's various agroecological zones and regions for the research sample. A combination of purposive and snowball sampling was used to select 428 smallholder CSA farmers of which 182 were adopters while 246 were dis-adopters. Primary data were collected using interview guides developed through the Kobo Collect Application. Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) statistical packages were used to process and analyze the data. This study established that CSA technologies in Kakamega are mainly promoted by international development partners, non-governmental organizations and research organizations. In addition, the most adopted CSA technologies were agroforestry, composting, and soil and water conservation structures, while push-pull technology, conservation agriculture, and vermiculture were the least adopted. This study, further, established that smallholder farmers’ level of education, membership to a farmers’ group, interaction with extension officers and farming experience influenced adoption of CSA technologies. Other factors are those that increase household productive resources, such as land ownership, household income, and access to agricultural credit. The results of this study suggest that those who promote CSA technologies, policymakers, extension service providers, and other stakeholders should take smallholder farmers' socioeconomic and bio-physical factors into account when doing so. Key words: Climate-smart agriculture, CSA practices, CSA adoption, CSA dis-adoption, smallholder farmers

With the increasing concern about climate change and its impacts on agriculture, understanding the dynamics of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the European Union (EU) agricultural sector is essential for devising effective mitigation strategies. This study aims to assess the impact of agriculture on GHG within the EU and to examine how climate-smart agricultural practices can affect these emissions. The research investigates the complex relationship between agricultural activities and GHG emissions within the European Union during the period of 2017–2022 using structural equation modeling based on data from Eurostat and the European Commission. Furthermore, the study examines the influence of the digital economy on labor productivity in agriculture, recognizing the pivotal role of digital technologies in fostering climate-smart agricultural practices. The findings unveil significant positive influences encompassing the digital economy, agricultural productivity, agricultural output, and GHG emissions, underscoring the imperative of integrating climate-smart methodologies into agricultural frameworks. However, the influence of digital technologies is not significant as a result of opposing forces. Digital technologies exert positive indirect influences by increasing agricultural productivity and agricultural output, while they have negative influences by improving production processes through automation and precision agriculture. Digitalization and climate-smart agricultural practices have a significant potential to improve the efficiency and sustainability of the agricultural sector, contributing to food security and environmental protection by reducing GHG emissions. This study highlights the EU’s potential to achieve its environmental objectives through the reduction of GHG emissions and the enhancement of resilience within the agricultural sector, emphasizing the necessity of adopting climate-smart strategies.

Agriculture in Africa is not only exposed to climate change impacts but is also a source of greenhouse gases (GHGs). While GHG emissions in Africa are relatively minimal in global dimensions, agriculture in the continent constitutes a major source of GHG emissions. In Ghana, agricultural emissions are accelerating, mainly due to ensuing deforestation of which smallholder cocoa farming is largely associated. The sector is also bedevilled by soil degradation, pests, diseases and poor yields coupled with poor agronomic practices. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) thus offers a way to reduce the sector’s GHG emissions and to adapt the sector to the adverse impacts of climate change. This study assesses the potential of CSA vis-à-vis conventional cocoa systems to enhance production, mitigate and/or remove GHG emissions and build resilience, in addition to understanding key determinants influencing CSA practices. Using a mixed methods approach, data was collected in Ghana’s Juabeso and Atwima Mponua districts through semi-structured household questionnaires administered to 80 household heads of cocoa farms, two focus group discussions and expert interviews. A farm budget analysis of productivity and economic performance for both scenarios show that CSA practitioners had a 29% higher income per ha compared to the conventional farmers. Estimations using the FAO Ex-Ante Carbon-Balance Tool (EX-ACT) indicate CSA practices preserve forest resources without which the effect on carbon balance as presented by conventional farming would remain a source of GHG emissions. Farm tenure, age of farmers, location of farm, residential status and access to extension services were the main determining factors influencing CSA practices among cocoa farmers. An in-depth understanding of these indicators can help identify ways to strengthen CSA strategies in the cocoa sector and their contributions to climate change mitigation and resilience.