A Study on Parent’s Attitudes towards the Education of their Daughters

Context : Laboratory services have become an integral and inseparable component of modern medicine and public health. The use of standard operating procedure (SOP) in laboratory testing is one of the most crucial factor in achieving the quality. This cross sectional study was done to assess the quality of routine microscopic examination of urine of a microbiology laboratory at primary level and one microbiology laboratory at secondary level by evaluating the test results before SOP and re evaluating the test results after implementing SOP to see if there was any improvement in quality of those tests.Material and Methods: A cross sectional, descriptive type of study was conducted in Narsingdi Sador Hospital as secondary level microbiology laboratory and Polash Upzilla Health Complex as primary level microbiology laboratory. The study was performed on clinically suspected patients of urinary tract infection (UTI) attending at the primary and secondary level laboratory for microscopic examination of urine. Clinically suspected cases of UTI who had taken any anti microbial treatment in the past 48 hours were excluded from the study. 60 urine samples were collected from each level before implementing SOP and 30 urine samples were collected from each level and tested after following SOP.Result : In routine microscopic examination of urine at primary and secondary level, before SOP, regarding significant number of Pus cells discrepancy was found in 21.67% cases at primary level and 18.33% cases at secondary level. After implementing SOP, discrepancy in the result was reduced to 10% from 21.67% at primary level and 0% from 18.33% at secondary level. This difference in results was statistically significant (p< 0.05).Conclusion: Implementing SOP and after practicing appropriate and standard techniques for collection and examination of urine at primary and secondary level, discrepancy in the results of routine microscopic examination of urine between investigator and Medical Officer (MOPathology) was reduced and overall quality of tests were improved.J Dhaka Medical College, Vol. 25, No.2, October, 2016, Page 87-93

To estimate the cost of ambulatory (out-patient) and in-patient pediatric health services for the year 1999 provided by All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) at all the three levels-primary, secondary and tertiary level. The costing module developed by Children's Vaccines Initiative (CVI) was used. This rapid assessment tool focuses on collection of data at macro level by using key informants like doctors, nursing staff, accountant, store keeper, engineer etc. Cost per beneficiary was estimated separately for in-patients and out-patients and was calculated by dividing the total cost of the services by the number of beneficiaries for the year 1999. For the out-patient, the beneficiaries were the total out-patient attendees and for the in-patient, it was the total pediatric admissions multiplied by mean duration of stay in days. The cost per out-patient visit was INR.20.2 (US0.44 dollars@1US dollars=INR.46) at primary level, higher than INR14.5 (US0.31 dollars) at the secondary level, while at tertiary level it was INR 33.8 (US 0.73 dollars). At the primary and secondary level, non-physician cost was more than the physician cost, and for tertiary level, physician cost was much higher than the other costs. There were no in-patient services at primary level. The cost of in-patient services at secondary level was estimated as INR 419.30 (US 9.1 dollars) per patient per day with a bed occupancy rate of 60%. Two-fifths of the cost was due to nursing and other supportive staff and one fifth due to the doctor costs and overhead costs. The unit cost of INR 928 (US 20.2 dollars) per patient per day incurred at AIIMS with a bed occupancy rate of 100% was almost twice that of secondary level. In contrast to the secondary level, almost half the total costs at tertiary level was due to the doctors costs. Effective use of resources at lower level of care especially ambulatory care at primary level and inpatient care at secondary level can result in much higher savings for the system and also, the society. These would need to be appropriately strengthened.

Introduction:Work-related stress (WRS) is an insidious and persistent part of everyday life related to the response of people to work environment. Nursing is a strenuous job and WRS is prevalent among nurses. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of WRS among nurses working in primary and secondary health care levels in Dammam, Eastern Saudi Arabia.Materials and Methods:A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted in 17 primary health care centers (PHCCs) representing the primary level of health care and Medical Tower Complex (MTC) representing the secondary health care level in Dammam city. The total number of nurses included in the study was 637 nurses (144 in PHCCs) and (493 MTC). Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire, which was developed based on the pertinent literature. It included two main parts: Sociodemographic and job characteristics of nurses and 31 WRS questions.Results:The overall prevalence of WRS among all studied nurses was 45.5%; 43.1% and 46.2% in primary and secondary levels, respectively. In the primary level, there was a statistical significant association between WRS and being married (85.5%), and having living three children and more (53.2%). Moreover, younger age group 20-<30 years (79.4%), Saudi nationality (86.8%), being married (74.6%), having nonbachelor degree (83.3%), work shifts (89.5%), and working in surgical department (46.5%) were the significant associating factors with the occurrence of WRS among nurses in secondary levels. Young age was the only predicting factor for WRS in primary care level. While being female, Saudi, married, with work shifts, and working in surgical department were found to predict WRS in the secondary level.Recommendations:Appropriate strategy in health care organization to investigate stress in health care settings is recommended. Moreover, interventional programs to identify, and relieve sources and effects of stress should be developed.

Grammar is a key focus of current UK national curriculum policy, at both primary and secondary school level. But grammar policy across these levels is incongruous: at primary level, policy is largely prescriptive, framing language as a system of constraints and rules, whereas at secondary level, policy is much more geared towards descriptive, functional linguistics. Using data acquired from a survey with 275 secondary English teachers and interviews with 24 secondary English teachers, I critically explore how the incongruity of primary–secondary level grammar policy is impacting upon grammar pedagogy at secondary level. Using a combination of thematic and metaphor analysis, I show how many teachers report secondary students conceptualising grammar as a list of technical terms, with little idea or experience of how to use this knowledge in applications such as critical reading or creative writing. I also show how some secondary teachers were aiming to integrate grammar into their teaching, looking to build and develop on the grammatical knowledge students have from primary level. The data show that teacher and student conceptualisations of grammar are shaped by curriculum policy, and I call for a more coherent and coordinated vision of grammar across primary and secondary level.

Evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of health services is important for all countries, especially those with limited resources. This study aimed to evaluate the volume and quality of health services research (HSR) conducted in one developing region, the English-speaking Caribbean. Data were abstracted from all 770 abstracts describing presentations at the annual scientific meetings of the Commonwealth Caribbean Medical Research Council for the decade 1984 to 1993. Of these, 341 abstracts were judged to report health services research and were from the English-speaking Caribbean. Hospital services were evaluated in 240 (70%) reports while primary health services were evaluated in only 90 (26%). Most hospital-based studies evaluated the use and outcome of medical and surgical services through the collection of case series and cohorts of cases, with a median sample size of 104 (interquartile range 38 to 320). Evaluations at primary level were more likely to evaluate need or demand for services, were more likely to report cross sectional surveys or randomized trials and included larger numbers of subjects (median 343, interquartile range 121 to 661). Patient-based measures of health status and measures of resource use were not often reported at either primary or secondary level. Estimation and hypothesis testing were infrequently employed in data analysis. A large proportion of the research presented could be classified as HSR but measures are needed to increase the motivation for research into primary care and to improve skills in HSR study design, conduct and analysis among those presently conducting research.

Arabic, as the language of the Qur’an, holds a special status in the Islamic education system in Malaysia. Its mastery is not only essential for worship and religious appreciation, but also extends to academic needs, communication, and the development of a strong Muslim identity. However, the level of proficiency in spoken Arabic among students at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels remains alarming. This weakness stems from various factors, including teaching approaches that focus primarily on memorization and grammar, limited exposure to environments that encourage direct language use, and the absence of a comprehensive and systematic environmental model that can foster speaking skills in authentic contexts. This study aims to identify the need for a suitable and effective model of an Arabic-speaking environment that can be applied across primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The research employs a qualitative design through an analytical review of previous studies related to the topic. Findings indicate a significant gap between the objectives of Arabic language teaching and its actual implementation both inside and outside the classroom. At the primary level, limited time allocation, lack of trained teachers, and the absence of supporting activities such as language clubs or language games hinder the development of oral communication skills among pupils. At the secondary level, students are more exposed to examination-oriented practices focusing on writing and memorization, which often neglects speaking proficiency. At the tertiary level, although reinforcement programs such as language weeks, Arabic-speaking study circles, and communication classes are offered, their application remains limited and inconsistent. Therefore, a holistic environmental model is needed, encompassing three key elements: (i) policy and administrative support, (ii) student-centered teaching approaches and co-curricular activities, and (iii) the development of a comprehensive language community within schools and campuses. This study carries significant implications for policymakers, school and university administrators, teachers, and students in strengthening Arabic language mastery through the creation of environments that stimulate authentic learning.

Background: Low back pain (LBP) is a leading cause of morbidity in the healthcare profession. It is a complex problem of the biopsychosocial factors (BPS) effect, where processing mechanisms affect the experience of pain, function, participation in society and personal prosperity. Psychological factors are important predictors of poor outcomes because they can significantly influence pain management and coping. Objective: To determine the prevalence of psychological factors, the difference in general health and the tendency toward psychological dysfunction of healthcare professionals with low back pain at different levels of healthcare system. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in five primary, secondary and tertiary level healthcare institutions in Boka Kotorska, Montenegro (December 2021 - July 2022). The study involved 192 subjects with LBP who voluntary entered the study and met the inclusion criteria. The study instrument was the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), which provides information on mental health by identifying symptoms of distress. The data were analyzed using the χ2 test with a statistical significance limit of p&lt;0.05. Results: The study included n=67 (34.9%) respondents working at secondary level, n=63 (32.8%) at the primary level and n=62 (32.3%) working at tertiary level, predominantly female. Analysis of the psychological factors representation indicate significant differences in overcoming difficulties (p=0.05), enjoyment in daily activities (p=0.042) and feelings of happiness and progress (p=0.004). There were statistically significant differences in general health and in the tendency to psychological dysfunction (p=0.005). Tendency to somatic symptoms is most prevalent at primary (55.6%) and tertiary (51.6%) healthcare level. Respondents working at Secondary level showed a tendency towards social dysfunction, anxiety and depression (50.7%, 17.9% and 3%). Conclusion: Psychological factors are represented differently in the healthcare profession. A statistically significant difference was found among healthcare professionals of the examined levels, especially in the feeling of inability to overcome difficulties, enjoyment in usual daily activities, and feeling of happiness and progress. There is also a significant difference in the representation of psychological dysfunction at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of healthcare, while general health is most impaired among healthcare professionals working at the secondary level.

The Intergenerational Impact of China's New Rural Pension Scheme

Using estimates of schooling demand function and private rate of return to education by gender derived from Household Integrated Economic Survey 2010-11, this paper attempts to examine if there is any dynamics to define a differential behaviour across gender in enrolment in Pakistan and if there is then what can be the possible cause of such discrepancies and how can they be reduced. The first set of analysis focuses on the estimates of probability of enrolment at primary, secondary and tertiary level of education by gender. Strong evidence for higher likelihood of enrolment emerges only at the secondary level of education when the gender is male. The behaviour of the determinants for these schooling demand functions at different levels of education differs by gender. One such key variable is parental education, which is more pronounced in case of mother’s education towards increasing the likelihood of enrolment of girls at the primary and secondary level and of father’s education for boys at all levels and girls at the tertiary level. Hence investing in female education today will not only empower females today but as a positive externality will also lead to gender equity in educational outcomes in the future. Besides this intergenerational externality of investment in female education, the finding establishes that when conditional cash programmes are targeted at mothers as a policy tool they become an effective measure in increasing current female enrolment. Moreover the case for reducing gender disparities in educational outcomes is further supported when we see how gender imbalance in educational attainment and female labour force participation lead to discrepancies in the private rate of return to education by gender. The varied estimates of private rate of returns to education for males and females show that such deviations arise because the females labour force on average is much less educated than males and hence if the object is to raise the rates of returns, a targeted policy for reducing gender differences in enrolment at all levels of education primary, secondary and tertiary will have to be implemented.

A switching event-triggered resilient control scheme for primary and secondary levels in AC microgrids

The young minds are provided with climate change and sustainable development education through various means. Environmental education is being taught at the primary level in Central Board of Secondary Education Schools while it is being taught at secondary level in the Social Science and Science Subject in C.B.S.E. Schools of India with various tools and methods. In the present study, the authors have incorporated some methods which help in teaching about climate change at primary and secondary levels. The study shows how the adopted methods are effective in disseminating knowledge about climate change. The investigator decided to adopt the survey method of research to know the method of teaching being adopted for teaching of climate change in environmental science at primary level and in science or social science, eco club at secondary level. Findings were that students should be taught in the school curriculum itself about climate change and its effects. The teaching strategies should be adopted based on the level of the child, his level of cognitive ability, accessibility, and ease of use.

Aims: To evaluate the present status of microbiology laboratory by comparing the test results of investigator with that of laboratory staff for sputum for Acid Fast Bacilli (AFB) withZiehl-NeelsenStaining (Z-N Staining) at primary and secondary level andto assess the present status of a microbiology laboratory for sputum for Acid Fast Bacilli (AFB) withZiehl-NeelsenStaining (Z-N Staining) at tertiary level. Material and Methods: Type of study : Cross sectional, descriptive type of study. Place of study: Department of Microbiology of Dhaka Medical College,Narsingdi Sadar Hospital,Narsingdi,PolashUpzilla Health Complex ,Polash, Narsingdi andDOTS centers. Duration of study: From July, 2007 to June,2008 Method of sampling: Non probability, purposive and convenient sampling Sample Size: Sputum for AFB: 300 sputum samples were collected for detection of AFB by direct Z-N staining, Z-N staining after bleach centrifugation and Auramine phenol staining before implementing SOP. After following SOP 150 sputum samples were collected and tested in direct Z-N method. Results: In the present study, before SOP out of 100 sputum smear at each level, discrepancy was found in 3% cases at primary level, 2% cases at secondary level and 1% case at tertiary level.After following SOP out of 50 sputum smear at each level, discrepancy was reduced to 2% cases at primary level and no discrepancy was found at secondary and tertiary level. Conclusion: Each laboratory must have SOP for laboratory testing to set the minimum acceptable standard for every test in order to improve and maintain the quality of laboratory services. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjms.v11i1.9824 BJMS 2012; 11(1): 51-56

Background: In the South Asian sub-continent, more than 87% of distance visual impairment is due to avoidable causes. Women bear a disproportionately large burden of the problem. Objectives: To perform an eyecare program wide analysis of utilization data, disaggregated by sex, age and presenting visual acuity, in order to investigate if utilization varied with gender, and if so at what level of services. Methods: Retrospective one-year data (July 2016-June 2017), collected as part of a north-Indian eyecare program was analyzed for sex-based differences. It consisted of rural and urban attendance at vision centers and camps at primary level, plus walk-in access and cataract operations at rural secondary, and urban tertiary levels. Results: At primary and secondary levels in rural areas, significantly fewer women than men accessed vision centers and camps, and received cataract surgery at the secondary hospital, respectively. This trend was reversed in urban areas, both at primary level, and at tertiary hospital. Cataract surgical patients were further stratified by pre-operative visual acuity in better eye, and at both levels significantly more women than men were blind at time of surgery. Conclusions: Service utilization by women varies significantly and unpredictably within a single eyecare program. Collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated data is needed at all locations and levels of care, to determine inequity and plan interventions.

We use the Demographic and Health Survey of 2006 to examine the relationship between female education, contraceptive use, and fertility rates in Uganda. Our findings reveal that female education, especially at the secondary and post-secondary levels, increases the likelihood of using contraceptives and reduces fertility. As a result, measures that aim to educate women beyond secondary level are needed. The government programme to extend free education at the secondary level is an important measure that may help to reduce fertility and should therefore be strengthened.

Background: Women's education is pivotal in addressing elevated fertility rates, particularly in developing nations. Despite declining fertility rates, Uganda sustains a high fertility rate of 6.2, surpassing the sub-Saharan Africa regional average of 4.6. This heightened fertility poses a significant obstacle to Uganda's sustainable development goals. This study investigates the relationship between female education and fertility preference among Ugandan women in 2006, 2011 and 2016. Methods: The study used data from the Uganda Demographic and Health Survey for 2006, 2011, and 2016, with a sample of 6,216, 5,205, and 10,741 women, respectively. A multivariable logistic model was utilized to establish the relationship between female education and fertility preference. Results: Findings revealed the existence of an inverse relationship between female education and fertility preference over the years 2006, 2011 and 2016 (Primary OR=0.67, 95% CI 0.53-0.84; OR=0.58, 95% CI 0.45-0.74; OR=0.70, 95% CI 0.57-086) respectively. For secondary or more education, OR =0.43, 95% CI 0.22-0.87; OR=0.56, 95%CI 0.34-0.92, OR =0.80, 95% CI 0.56-1.14) respectively. Fertility preference is inversely related to the mother’s income status, age and number of living children. Fertility preference is positively associated with the ideal number of children and contraceptive use. Conclusion: This study has shown that female education helps to manage women’s fertility preferences. Educated women can access information and get better employment to decide on the desired family size. The study advocates for the continued education of females to empower them in actively shaping their desired family size. It is recommended that government efforts to strengthen universal access to education at both primary and secondary levels. To cater for those outside the school setting, we recommend the strengthening of programmes on sexual reproductive health that should include an open discussion on the ideal family size.