A Study of Women's Access to Higher Education in Rural and Urban China

This study aims to investigate the impact of digital engagement on urban-rural disparities in depressive symptoms among Chinese women. Using a dataset from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) wave 2020, this study analyzes the impact of digital engagement on the urban-rural disparity in women's depressive symptoms using multiple linear regression and recentered influence function (RIF) models. Furthermore, the extent to which digital engagement affects the urban-rural disparity in women's depressive symptoms was calculated using the RIF decomposition method. Analysis showed that rural women had significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms compared to urban women; digital engagement significantly reduced women's depressive symptoms levels and mitigated the urban-rural disparity for women with moderate to high levels of depressive symptoms, and the mitigating effect was stronger for the highly depressed sample, but still widened the urban-rural disparity in women's depressive symptoms overall. In addition, the results of the RIF decomposition showed that digital engagement explained 28.28% of the urban-rural disparity in women's depressive symptoms. There is a significant disparity in depressive symptoms levels between urban and rural women in China. Digital engagement reduces women's depressive symptoms, but it also widens the depressive symptoms disparity between urban and rural women overall. Digital engagement is potentially positive for reducing women's depressive symptoms.

Access to quality healthcare is a fundamental human right, but in India, gender-based disparities in healthcare access persist. This study examines these disparities in the states of Uttar Pradesh (UP) and Kerala, shedding light on the complex interplay of social, economic, and political factors that shape women's access to healthcare. Objective: Our primary objective is to identify and understand the determinants of gender-based disparities in healthcare access for women in UP and Kerala. Specifically, we aim to: Investigate the factors contributing to the poor health access of women in these states. Examine the demographic and socio-political elements responsible for differential health access between women in UP and Kerala. Explore how regional development disparities, civil societal activism, and women's social positions impact healthcare access. Research Method: This study employs a mixed-method approach. Extensive literature reviews and secondary data analysis of national and international reports provide insights into the structural differences, demographic variations, and historical contexts of UP and Kerala. Primary data collection is carried out through surveys with flexible questionnaires, using stratified and cluster sampling methods to gather data from women in different regions of both states. Results and Discussion: Preliminary findings indicate stark disparities in women's access to healthcare between UP and Kerala. While Kerala demonstrates notable progress in health outcomes, UP lags behind. Factors such as regional development, civil societal activism, and women's social positions play significant roles in shaping these disparities. Conclusion: Gender-based healthcare disparities in India persist, adversely affecting women's health. This research underscores the need for targeted policy interventions to address these inequalities and move toward universal health coverage. Bridging these gaps is essential to uphold the principle of health as a fundamental right for all.

BackgroundOverweight/obesity remains a major risk factor for non-communicable diseases and their associated morbidities and mortalities. Yet, limited studies have comprehensively examined factors contributing to the rural–urban disparities in overweight/obesity among women in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, our study sought to decompose the rural–urban disparities in overweight/obesity among women in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) using nationally representative datasets.MethodsWe performed a cross-sectional analysis of data from the Demographic and Health Surveys of 23 sub-Saharan African countries conducted from 2015 to 2022. A sample of 177,329 women was included in the analysis. Percentages with confidence intervals (CIs) were used to summarize the prevalence of overweight/obesity per rural–urban strata and pooled level. A multivariate non-linear decomposition analysis was used to identify the factors contributing to the rural–urban disparities in overweight/obesity. The results were presented using coefficients and percentages.ResultsThe pooled prevalence of overweight/obesity among the women was higher in urban areas (38.9%; 95% CI = 38.2–39.6) than rural areas (19.1%; 95% CI = 18.7–19.6). This pattern was observed in all the countries surveyed, except in South Africa, where women in rural areas (53.1%; 95% CI = 50.0–56.4) had a higher prevalence of overweight/obesity than those in urban areas (46.0%; 95% CI = 43.2–48.9). Approximately 54% of the rural–urban disparities in overweight/obesity was attributable to the differences in the women’s characteristics or explanatory variables. More than half of the rural–urban disparities in overweight/obesity would be reduced if the disparities in women’s characteristics were levelled. Among the women’s characteristics, frequency of watching television (29.03%), wealth index (26.59%), and level of education (9.40%) explained approximately 65% of the rural–urban differences in overweight/obesity.ConclusionThe prevalence of overweight/obesity among women in SSA remains high and skewed towards women in urban areas. Increased frequency of watching television, high wealth index, and higher educational attainment contributed largely to the rural-urban disparities in overweight/obesity among women in SSA. Thus, interventions aimed at reducing overweight/obesity among women in SSA could be targeted at reducing the frequency of television watching as well as promoting physical activities among wealthy women and those with higher education, particularly in urban areas.

The USA has undergone extraordinary changes over the past 35 years with respect to women's access to equality in education, employment and participation in political life. This has come about because of the introduction of anti‐discrimination legislation and because of the activities of professional organisations in activating the implementation of these laws and pressing for a wide interpretation of their meaning. The work of social scientists in documenting disparities in women's access to education and employment and the use of such research in developing agendas for social change were central to this process. This article reflects on the early days of the second wave of the women's movement in the USA in the late 1960s, of which I was a part, with a focus on its use of research and the subsequent research that informed political agendas. I explore the context in which the woman's movement was developed and the establishment of rights in the USA, concentrating on women's access to employment, particularly, but not entirely, in the professions.

This paper summarizes recent research about several structural influences on racial and ethnic disparities in women's health care. While disparities in women's health care access and quality emanate from a number of sources, this paper focuses on the intersection between race/ethnicity and several structural factors (access to insurance coverage, discrimination, neighborhood characteristics, and social isolation). We identify gaps in the literature and suggest directions for future research. Particularly needed are gender studies of the impact of race/ethnicity that transcend the black–white dichotomy, that attend to location, that examine variation in social networks, and that clarify the impact of discrimination on women's health care.

BackgroundTobacco use remains a major public health challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, with significant gendered dimensions. Place of residence is an important determinant, as rural and urban contexts shape exposure, access, and consumption patterns. This study investigates rural–urban disparities in tobacco use among women in sub-Saharan Africa, with a focus on quantifying the relative contributions of socioeconomic factors.MethodsWe conducted a pooled cross-sectional analysis using nationally representative data from the most recent Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) of 22 sub-Saharan African countries (2015–2022). The study sample included 350,536 women aged 15–49 years with complete data on tobacco use and relevant covariates. Tobacco use was defined as self-reported current use of cigarettes or other tobacco products. We employed a multivariate decomposition for non-linear response models to quantify the contributions of group differences in characteristics versus differences in how those characteristics affect an outcome. This technique partitions the observed rural–urban gap in tobacco use into two components: (1) endowment effects (compositional differences in characteristics such as education, household wealth, age, marital status, and employment) and (2) coefficient effects (differences in the influence of these characteristics on tobacco use between rural and urban women). Models adjusted for sampling weights and survey design effects to ensure representativeness.ResultsCompositional differences explained 167.48% of the rural–urban disparity in women’s tobacco use. Educational attainment and wealth index were the most significant contributors, both showing protective effects. If rural women’s education and wealth levels matched those of urban women, tobacco use prevalence would be reduced by 24.99% and 49.84%, respectively. Differences in coefficients accounted for −67.48% of the observed gap, with baseline differences in intercepts (−166.17%) driving most of this effect. These findings highlight both structural disadvantages and variations in behavioural responsiveness across residential settings.ConclusionThe study demonstrates that rural–urban disparities in tobacco use among women are primarily shaped by inequalities in education and wealth. Interventions aimed at expanding educational opportunities and addressing poverty in rural communities could substantially reduce tobacco use. Additionally, tailored prevention and cessation strategies targeting women at both the lowest and highest ends of the socioeconomic spectrum are essential to mitigate disparities and advance tobacco control in sub-Saharan Africa.

Tobacco use remains a major public health challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, with significant gendered dimensions. Place of residence is an important determinant, as rural and urban contexts shape exposure, access, and consumption patterns. This study investigates rural-urban disparities in tobacco use among women in sub-Saharan Africa, with a focus on quantifying the relative contributions of socioeconomic factors. We conducted a pooled cross-sectional analysis using nationally representative data from the most recent Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) of 22 sub-Saharan African countries (2015-2022). The study sample included 350,536 women aged 15-49 years with complete data on tobacco use and relevant covariates. Tobacco use was defined as self-reported current use of cigarettes or other tobacco products. We employed a multivariate decomposition for non-linear response models to quantify the contributions of group differences in characteristics versus differences in how those characteristics affect an outcome. This technique partitions the observed rural-urban gap in tobacco use into two components: (1) endowment effects (compositional differences in characteristics such as education, household wealth, age, marital status, and employment) and (2) coefficient effects (differences in the influence of these characteristics on tobacco use between rural and urban women). Models adjusted for sampling weights and survey design effects to ensure representativeness. Compositional differences explained 167.48% of the rural-urban disparity in women's tobacco use. Educational attainment and wealth index were the most significant contributors, both showing protective effects. If rural women's education and wealth levels matched those of urban women, tobacco use prevalence would be reduced by 24.99% and 49.84%, respectively. Differences in coefficients accounted for -67.48% of the observed gap, with baseline differences in intercepts (-166.17%) driving most of this effect. These findings highlight both structural disadvantages and variations in behavioural responsiveness across residential settings. The study demonstrates that rural-urban disparities in tobacco use among women are primarily shaped by inequalities in education and wealth. Interventions aimed at expanding educational opportunities and addressing poverty in rural communities could substantially reduce tobacco use. Additionally, tailored prevention and cessation strategies targeting women at both the lowest and highest ends of the socioeconomic spectrum are essential to mitigate disparities and advance tobacco control in sub-Saharan Africa.

Racial Disparities in Hysterectomy Route for Benign Disease: Examining Trends and Perioperative Complications from 2007 to 2018 Using the NSQIP Database

In the absence of paid family leave, postpartum low‐income unmarried women often rely on a patchwork of resources from wage earnings, public safety‐net programs, and informal familial support. The Great Recession (2007–2009) caused massive unemployment, with Black and Latine families disproportionately impacted by the economic fallout. Public safety‐net provisions attenuated economic hardship, yet it's unclear if postpartum low‐income women patched together comparable resources during the recession and if there were racially disparities in women's access to resources. Using a sample of low‐income unmarried women who gave birth between 2004 and 2011 from the Survey of Income and Public Program, we examine whether safety‐net provisions and familial support attenuated the fallout of the Great Recession by examining income patterns and safety‐net use (SNAP, WIC, and TANF) among postpartum low‐income unmarried women by ethnoracial group before and during the recession. Our findings suggest the Great Recession had a disparate negative impact on the economic well‐being of postpartum Black women, particularly through lower wage earnings. Increased SNAP income may have attenuated some, but not all, of the deleterious impact of the recession on Black women, and increased WIC participation may also have provided crucial support for addressing food insecurity among Black women. Implications for maternal and infant health and policy are discussed.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have ushered in the new era and possess the prospective to generate educational and job opportunities, awareness on the basic available health care facilities, legal provisions, government programmes and welfare schemes etc. The benefits amassed from the combination of knowledge and ICT should not be confined to the upper strata of the society but need to liberally flow to all the sections of the female population. The extent of areas in which ICT can put a larger control in the hands of women is extensive and constantly increasing, from managing water distribution at the village-level to standing for local elections and having admittance to enduring learning opportunities. With such an unmatched prowess, ICTs definitely can bring a social change in the rural hinterlands of Odisha, a state in India. A large portion of rural women in the state are reeling under poverty and lack awareness. They are absorbed in the farm sector (which doesn’t promise a hefty return, always) and are unskilled manual laborers. The socio cultural barriers discourage their public participation and decision making ventures. Socially, majority of women in rural Odisha are tied up by age-old traditions. Disparity in women's access to and participation in all communication systems as well as lack of mobilization proves to be a roadblock in their emancipation. It is in this context that this paper wants to examine the underpinning dynamism of culture and technology and if the former fosters or hinders ICT penetration in rural areas of Odisha.

The extent to which disparities affect all sexual minority women (SMW) versus specific subgroups of lesbian, bisexual, or other women remains unclear, in part due to inconsistent analysis of available data. We propose an integrated approach that aggregates subgroups to maximize power to detect broadly applicable disparities, then tests for subgroup heterogeneity, exercising caution with disaggregation when there is no direct evidence of heterogeneity. Multivariate analyses of 2014-2015 National Health Interview Survey data examined six barriers to care. We compared heterosexual women (n = 36,474) with SMW (n = 1048) overall and tested for heterogeneous outcomes among subgroups of SMW compared with heterosexual women and with each other. Controlling for sociodemographics and health status, aggregated analyses showed that SMW were more likely than heterosexual peers to have trouble finding a provider (adjusted percentages 5.1% vs. 3.2%, p < 0.01) and no optimal usual place of care (14.5% vs. 11.2%, p < 0.01). There was no evidence of subgroup heterogeneity for either barrier, suggesting uniform disparities for SMW. In contrast, only lesbian/gay women were more likely than heterosexual women to be told their health insurance was not accepted (p = 0.03); this was the only outcome for which the adjusted difference between bisexual and lesbian/gay women was significant (2.8% vs. 6.3%, p = 0.02). Analyses that only disaggregated data would have understated overall sexual minority disparities and perhaps overstated subgroup differences; an integrated approach can more accurately characterize disparities experienced by all SMW versus those specific to certain subgroups. Large national surveys should include sexual orientation questions to support adequately powered comparisons.

Clinician Perspectives on Ethics and COVID-19: Minding the Gap in Sexual and Reproductive Health.

Rural–Urban Disparities in Women’s Malnutrition: A Study of Two Selected Districts from West Bengal, India

The study explores the decision-making authority of women in rural and urban households and the disparity between the two groups. The data for the study come from a primary survey conducted in the state of Assam and includes 450 married women belonging to rural and urban areas of the state. The primary objective of the study is to uncover three aspects of women’s empowerment at the household level – the extent of women’s empowerment; the rural–urban disparity in women’s decision-making power; and the factors that influence women’s decision-making power. The Women Decision-Making Power Index (WDPI), which includes eight diverse components of women’s empowerment, was used to evaluate the extent of women’s empowerment. To determine the degree of the rural–urban discrepancy in decision-making ability, the study uses factor analysis and Sopher’s index. The factors affecting the decision-making ability of women were analyzed using a regression model. The results show a strong association between domicile and the women’s participation in family decision-making with rural women exhibiting lower participation as compared to their urban counterparts. The explanatory factors that emerged significant in the study are the levels of education and the dominant social norms that differ in rural and urban settings, leading to the difference in the decision-making power of women. The study contributes to the literature by shedding light on women’s empowerment from the lens of capabilities approach using micro-data sourced from the primary survey.

Racial and ethnic disparities in women's health have existed for decades, despite efforts to strengthen women's reproductive health access and utilization. Recent guidance by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) underscores the often unacknowledged and unmeasured role of racial bias and systemic racial injustice in reproductive health disparities and highlights a renewed commitment to eliminating them. Reaching health equity requires an understanding of current racial-ethnic gaps in reproductive health and a concerted effort to develop and implement strategies to close gaps. We summarized national data for several reproductive health measures, such as contraceptive use, Pap tests, mammograms, maternal mortality, and unintended pregnancies, by race-ethnicity to inform health-equity strategies. Studies were retrieved by systematically searching the PubMed (2010-2020) electronic database to identify most recently published national estimates by race-ethnicity (non-Hispanic Black or African American, Hispanic or Latinx, and non-Hispanic White women). Disparities were found in each reproductive health category. We describe relevant components of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and the Preventing Maternal Deaths Act, which can help to further strengthen reproductive health care, close gaps in services and outcomes, and decrease racial-ethnic reproductive health disparities. Owing to continued diminishment of certain components of the ACA, to optimally reach reproductive health equity, comprehensive health insurance coverage is vital. Strengthening policy-level strategies, along with ACOG's heightened commitment to eliminating racial disparities in women's health by confronting bias and racism, can strengthen actions toward reproductive health equity.