A Review on Effective Usage of Recycling of Lubricating Engine Oil

This paper addresses recycling of waste engine oils treated using acetic acid. A recycling process was developed which eventually led to comparable results with some of the conventional methods. This gives the recycled oil the potential to be reused in cars’ engines after adding the required additives. The advantage of using the acetic acid is that it does not react or only reacts slightly with base oils. The recycling process takes place at room temperature. It has been shown that base oils and oils’ additives are slightly affected by the acetic acid. Upon adding 0.8 vol% of acetic acid to the used oil, two layers were separated, a transparent dark red colored oil and a black dark sludge at the bottom of the container. The base oils resulting from other recycling methods were compared to the results of this paper. The comparison showed that the recycled oil produced by acetic acid treatment is comparable to those recycled by the other conventional methods.

This paper addresses recycling of waste engine oils treated using by (acetic acid and formic acid). A recycling process was developed which eventually led to comparable results with some of the conventional methods. This gives the recycled oil the potential to be reused in cars’ engines after adding the required additives. The advantage of using the (acetic acid or formic acid) is that it does not react or only reacts slightly with base oils. The recycling process takes place at room temperature. It has been shown that base oils and oils’ additives are slightly affected by the acetic acid. Upon adding (acetic acid or formic acid) to the used oil, two layers were separated, a transparent dark red colored oil and a black dark sludge at the bottom of the container. The base oils resulting from other recycling methods were compared to the results of the fresh oil. The comparison showed that the recycled oil produced by acetic acid and formic acid treatment showed excellent results in the properties of the oil comparable to the fresh oil. Using volumetric ratio of 10:1 oil to acetic acid result in density 0.87 g/ml and this close to fresh oil mean while using ratio of 10:1 oil to formic acid result in viscosity 30 cp and this equivalent to fresh oil.

Immature green coffee beans, which originate from green coffee cherries, are defective beans that are difficult to distinguish from mature green beans. Roasting these immature green beans produces quaker beans, which can reduce coffee quality. Acid treatment has been studied to improve the aroma quality of coffee. Acetic acid, an organic acid in coffee produced during fermentation and commonly used as vinegar, requires further study to determine its effects on immature coffee beans. This study investigated the effect of acetic acid treatment on the sensory, physicochemical and antioxidant properties of immature Robusta coffee beans. Immature green beans were soaked in acetic acid solutions of varying concentrations (0, 1, 2, and 3 %) and durations (30, 60, and 90 min) at 35 °C. Immature coffee beans had lighter brown color after roasted, and have higher chlorogenic acid (65.39 mg/g), caffeine (26.08 mg/g) and total soluble phenolic contents (65.70 mgGAE/g) than mature beans (p < 0.05). The roasted coffee of CI3-90 was the best acetic acid treatment sample with the highest cupping score (82.9) and the most intensely brown color, which resulted in decreased brightness (38.64 to 30.54) and yellowness (29.91 to 25.79). The acetic acid treatment significantly reduced total soluble phenolic content (61.58 to 45.26 mgGAE/g), chlorogenic acid content (20.10 to 14.64 mg/g) and trigonelline content (7.40 to 6.07 mg/g) of immature roasted coffee beans. Nevertheless, acetic acid treatment did not significantly influence caffeine content or antioxidant activity in either the green or roasted immature coffee beans (p > 0.05). HIGHLIGHTS Acetic acid treatment can improve the sensory and color quality of roasted immature coffee beans. Treating immature coffee beans with 3 % acetic acid for 90 min is the best treatment, resulting in the highest cupping score and roasted bean colors that are close to the roasted color of mature coffee beans. The chlorogenic acid and trigonelline concentrations in green and roasted immature coffee exhibited a tendency to decrease with increasing acetic acid concentrations and treatment durations. The antioxidant activities of immature green and roasted coffee beans remained relatively stable after acetic acid treatment. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

<div class="htmlview paragraph">Changes in the performance requirements of passenger car (PCEO) and heavy duty (HDEO) engine oils are dra-matically impacting the design of tomorrow's automotive lubricants. Specifically, lubricant base oils are shifting toward higher quality API Group II+ (100 - 120 VI) and Group III versus more traditional API Group I and Group II.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">A feature of premium base oils is high Viscosity Index (VI). Since base oil VI is linked to volatility at a particular kinematic viscosity (KV), higher VI reduces base oil and finished oil volatility. This is key for ILSAC GF-3 PCEO requirements where significant volatility reduction is required to reduce oil consumption. High base oil VI also allows for higher base oil KV and reduced viscosity modifier (VM) treat which improves shear stability of finished fluid. This also provides opportunities to formulate PCEO against the European engine oil requirements where volatility and shear stability are key performance requirements.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Although improvements in low temperature fluidity are not expected to be limiting for tomorrow's automotive engine oils, the selection of dewaxing operation still plays an important role. For example, low temperature viscosity is improved through hydro-catalytic versus solvent dewaxing. This is tied to the type and amount of residual wax in the base oil.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">Engine performance is affected by base oil composition. Higher saturates base oils are beneficial with the new API CH-4 (PC-7) HDEO lubricants. Oxidation and engine performance benefits, in sludge and deposit control, of higher saturates base oils are key to achieving the ILSAC GF-3 performance limits.</div> <div class="htmlview paragraph">The impact of base oil composition on PCEO and HDEO performance is discussed in terms of several engine oil properties. These include volatility, shear stability, low temperature fluidity and engine performance. This will focus on future North American and current European engine oil qualities and the shift to higher quality API Group II+ and Group III base oils.</div>

Base oils make up the majority of the content of engine oils and substantially impact the overall performance of the finished lubricant product. The oxidative and thermal stability of the base oil are critical factors in defining the quality of automobile lubricating oil. Thus, it is critical to understand the degrading behavior of base oils and engine oils. The oxidative and thermal stability of several base oils and engine oil were thoroughly investigated in this study. Three distinct types of base oil (base 1, 2 and 3) and motor oil were produced and physically characterized. The samples were dried in a drying oven at atmospheric pressure and 150 ℃ for 24 h. The impact of heat treatment on the samples’ oxidative stability was investigated using a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR). The thermogravimetric analysis was used to determine the samples’ thermal stability (TGA). The study was done in an inert atmosphere using nitrogen gas and a 10 ℃ min−1 heating rate from 30 to 900 ℃. The experimental results indicate that base oils and engine oil resisted oxidation since no apparent chemical structural alteration was seen following 24-h heat treatment. Meanwhile, engine oil demonstrated the most outstanding onset temperature of 298 ℃, followed by base oil three (276 ℃), base oil two (275 ℃), and base oil one (262 ℃). Additionally, the TGA profile revealed that engine oil had the highest thermal stability at 5, 50, and 90% weight loss. Base oil three, base oil two, and base oil one all followed this pattern. Nonetheless, further research is necessary to better understand the mechanisms at action and assist in creating an industry-specific optimal solution.KeywordsBase oilsEngine oilOxidative stabilityThermal stabilityInfrared spectra

In order to improve the material properties and increase its economics of Thermal Plastic Elastomers(TPE) should use a suitable base oil and necessary additives when TPE compounding. The composition of base oil will play an important factor that will affect the TPE material properties. If too much Paraffinic content or too high CP content, high aniline point of base oil will result in oil bleeding, poor tensile strength, elongation and too soft weakness after TPE compounding, This poor properties can not meet the need of TPE processing industrial. In general,TPE processing oil comes from traditional refining base oil, but this traditional base oil can not meet the need of high quality lubricating oil for vehicle engine oil and industrial lubricants in future. So, unconventional base oil, e. g. hydrocracking base oil or wax hydroisomerization oil will predominate in base oil supply. But these high quality base oil contains much Paraffinic content or high CP content, high aniline point will have demerit when using in TPE processing. Modification of this high quality base oil with suitable additive can meet the requirement of TPE processing oil a successful study will be shown in this paper.

Despite having detrimental impacts on the environment and human health, used engine oil is not properly disposed of in Ghana. However, used engine oil can be a valuable resource when recycled. This study investigates the recovery of base oils from used engine oils collected in one Ghanaian municipality. The used engine oils are re‐refined either through acid‐clay treatment or solvent extraction. Pour point, density, viscosity index, and total acid number of used engine oil and re‐refined oils were measured in order to evaluate the two re‐refining processes used and assess whether it is appropriate to reuse the re‐refined oils as base oils. The pour point, total acid number, and viscosity index of the re‐refined oils were significantly different from those of the used engine oils. The density of the re‐refined oils varied little from that of the used engine oils (by 0.83% to 6.65%). These changes indicate the separation of some components, primarily impurities, from used engine oil as a result of re‐refining. Compared to solvent extraction, acid‐clay treatment was found to be less selective. When nitric acid or sulphuric acid was used, acid‐clay treatment often produced group I and II base oils, whereas hydrochloric acid typically produced group III base oils. Also, the solvent extraction process frequently yielded oils with very high viscosity indices comparable to group III base oils. It is recommended that the type of base oil preferred for the production of new lubricants should be taken into account when deciding on a specific method for re‐refining used engine oil.

Modern lube oils are prepared from base oils (base oil mixtures) and additives. The allotted quality parameters and the proper application properties are assured by the harmonical integration of these components. Some key lube oil properties depend on the quality of the base oil. For example a new demand has raised in the area of engine oils in the last couple of years: the demand is to contribute to the lower emission of the vehicles. This means the development of engine oils with low sulphated ash, low metal, sulphur and phosphorous content (“low SAPS” engine oils). In order to reach the adequate properties, the base oil (which is the main component of the engine oils) has to be produced with modern and advanced processes. The conventional base oil production line has its own disadvantages and limitations, so the catalytic processes were spread to enhance the viscosity index and to reduce the pour point of the base oils. It was necessary to develop and apply base oil production processes and technologies which are flexible to the crude oil quality and can produce environmentally friendly base oils with high viscosity index. To reach these goals the most adequate technologies are the catalytic base oil production processes. In the experimental section of this paper the results of hydroisomerization of wax from Hungarian crude oil on Pt/zeolite/Al2O3 catalyst are presented. Based on our experiments we established that with hydroisomerization base oils with very high or extra high viscosity index and low pour point can be produced from high molecular weight paraffinic hydrocarbon mixture. These base oils with low sulphur and aromatic content are appropriate, for example to produce energy efficient and environmentally friendly engine oils.

Profitable crop production starts with a weed control program that includes pre-emergence herbicides to deliver long-lasting, residual weed control. Pre-emergence herbicides are applied to prevent the germination of weed seeds. The study was conducted to determine the effect of acetic acid as a pre-emergence herbicide on maize germination. Pots experiment was conducted on August until September 2012. The experimental design used was Completely Randomized Design (CRD) single factor in four replicates. The application of pre-emergence acetic acid at several concentration, i.e. control (no acetic acid) 0%, 10% acetic acid and 20% acetic acid. The result showed that the pre-emergence aplication at 10% and 20% of the glacial acetic acid solution lowered pH were 5,12 and 5,43 respectively at one week after application, so that inhibited maize germination. No shoots and roots were grew. This was due to the increase of electrical conductivity (EC) or electrolyte leakage caused by the high permeability of the damaged membrane of seed. The EC of control treatment was 11μS/cm g, compared to 10 and 20% treatment of acetic acid were 36 μS / cm g and 55 μS / cm g EC respectively. Increasing concentration of acetic acid caused the higher of protein content leaked, i.e. 7,95%, 7,32% and 7,03% respectively for without acetic acid treatment, 10% and 20% acetic acid. Acetic acid also inhibited respiration rate of maize seed, where the higher concentration of acetic acid produced the lower respiration rate, i.e. 31.63 mg/g/hour, 12.38 mg/g/hour and 2,75 mg/g/hour respectively for without acetic acid treatment, 10% and 20% acetic acid. Keywords : Acetic Acid, Maize (Zea mays L.), Germination, Pre-Emergence Herbicide

Acetic acid delays fresh-cut cassava browning through fine-tunning redox homeostasis

Allelopathy and natural products are safe non-chemical modern techniques that applied as alternative to synthetic herbicides for controlling weeds. So, two pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the allelopathic effect of Psidium guajava leaf powder (PLP) and Acetic acid 5% as a natural product on the growth and yield of Capsicum annuum plants and both associated weeds: Phalaris minor (grassy weed) and Malva parviflora (broad-leaved weed). PLP was mixed with in the soil surface at successive rates (15, 30, 45 and 60 g/pot). In the corresponding treatments PLP at the same sequenced rates was mixed with the soil then sprayed with acetic acid 5% immediately. Moreover, sole spraying of acetic acid 5% treatment was sprayed on the soil surface. All treatments were applied before transplanting directly. Results revealed that the maximum inhibition of both weeds in both seasons was recorded by PLP at 60g + Acetic acid 5% as compared to unweeded control. Concerning to C. annuum growth parameters and yield traits, sole application of PLP at successive rates is more effective than PLP at the same successive rates with acetic acid 5%. So, it was observed that PLP at 60g/pot and 45 g/pot significantly developed most of growth parameters and yield traits of C. annuum than the healthy plants in both seasons. On the contrary, acetic acid treatment alone recorded the lowest value of all growth parameters and yield traits of Capsicum annuum plants.Allelopathy and natural products are safe non-chemical modern techniques that applied as alternative to synthetic herbicides for controlling weeds. So, two pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the allelopathic effect of Psidium guajava leaf powder (PLP) and Acetic acid 5% as a natural product on the growth and yield of Capsicum annuum plants and both associated weeds: Phalaris minor (grassy weed) and Malva parviflora (broad-leaved weed). PLP was mixed with in the soil surface at successive rates (15, 30, 45 and 60 g/pot). In the corresponding treatments PLP at the same sequenced rates was mixed with the soil then sprayed with acetic acid 5% immediately. Moreover, sole spraying of acetic acid 5% treatment was sprayed on the soil surface. All treatments were applied before transplanting directly. Results revealed that the maximum inhibition of both weeds in both seasons was recorded by PLP at 60g + Acetic acid 5% as compared to unweeded control. Concerning to C. annuum growth parameters and yield traits, sole application of PLP at successive rates is more effective than PLP at the same successive rates with acetic acid 5%. So, it was observed that PLP at 60g/pot and 45 g/pot significantly developed most of growth parameters and yield traits of C. annuum than the healthy plants in both seasons. On the contrary, acetic acid treatment alone recorded the lowest value of all growth parameters and yield traits of Capsicum annuum plants.

Organic chemical priming is an effective strategy in mitigating salt stress to plants. The objective of this study was to determine effects and associated mechanisms of acetic acid regulating plant tolerance to salt stress. Perennial ryegrass plants were pre-treated with 20 mM acetic acid and subsequently subjected to salt stress for 28 days. Salt stress caused increased endogenous acetic acid content with up-regulated expression of its key biosynthetic gene <i>LpPDC1</i>. Application of acetic acid effectively alleviated salt caused damage in perennial ryegrass. Acetic acid treatment increased K⁺ content and suppressed Na⁺ accumulation to maintain a higher K⁺/Na⁺ ratio in leaves exposed to salt stress. Plants treated with acetic acid also had significantly lower levels of <inline-formula> <tex-math id="Z-20210219143604">${\rm O}_2^- $</tex-math> <alternatives> <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" href="GR-2021-0003_Z-20210219143604.jpg"/> <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" href="GR-2021-0003_Z-20210219143604.png"/> </alternatives> </inline-formula> and H₂O₂, but higher SOD and CAT activities than those of the control after 21 days of salt stress. Acetic acid treatment also altered the plants endogenous phytohormone content with higher content of jasmonate (including JA, JA-ILe, and cis-OPDA), auxin (IAA), and cytokinins (CK, such as tZ, cZR, and iP), but lower content of abscisic acid (ABA) under salt stress conditions. Furthermore, expression of genes involved in JA, IAA, and CK biosynthesis and signaling pathways were up-regulated, while those involved in ABA were down-regulated by acetic acid treatment under salt stress. The results demonstrate that acetic acid could mitigate salt stress in perennial ryegrass by regulating K⁺ and Na⁺ balance, promoting ROS scavenging, and activating stress-protection hormone synthesis and signaling.

Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced endogenously in the gut by bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber have been studied as nutrients that act as signaling molecules to activate G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) such as GPR41 and GPR43. GPR43 functioning involves the suppression of lipid accumulation and maintaining body energy homeostasis, and is activated by acetic acid or propionic acid. Previously, we reported that the orally administered acetic acid improves lipid metabolism in liver and skeletal muscles and suppresses obesity, thus improving glucose tolerance. Acetic acid stimulates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) through its metabolic pathway in skeletal muscle cells. We hypothesized that acetic acid would stimulate GPR43 in skeletal muscle cells and has function in modulating gene expression related to muscle characteristics through its signal pathway. The objective of the current study was to clarify this effect of acetic acid. The GPR43 expression, observed in the differentiated myotube cells, was increased upon acetic acid treatment. Acetic acid induced the intracellular calcium influx in the cells and this induction was significantly inhibited by the GPR43-specific siRNA treatment. The calcineurin molecule is activated by calcium/calmodulin and is associated with proliferation of slow-twitch fibers. Calcineurin was activated by acetic acid treatment and inhibited by the concomitant treatment with GPR43-siRNA. Acetic acid induced nuclear localization of myocyte enhancer factor 2A (MEF2A), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), and nuclear factor of activated t cells c1 (NFATc1). However, these localizations were abolished by the treatment with GPR43-siRNA. It was concluded that acetic acid plays a role in the activation of GPR43 and involves the proliferation of slow-twitch fibers in L6 skeletal muscles through the calcium-signaling pathway caused by induction of intracellular calcium influx.

The U.S. Military specifies the use of Mil-PRF-2104 engine oil in the hydraulic system of certain nontactical military vehicles. Skid-steer loaders and other heavy equipment also use engine oils in their hydraulic systems. These vehicles are required to meet roll-off cleanliness specifications in order to improve hydraulic equipment reliability. Automatic particle counters are used to verify the cleanliness of these systems. Occasionally, particle counters detect phantom particles that cannot be removed by filtration. This paper examines the possible role of base oil and additive selection in the appearance of phantom counts. Filtered Group I and Group III base oils were doped with the components of an engine oil formulation. Particle levels were monitored before and after filtration using an on-line automatic particle counter. The results show that base oil selection has minimal bearing upon appearance of phantom counts while additive selection is a significant factor. Results from three different particle counters are compared. Two laser particle counters that operate by the light-blockage principle were found to produce phantom counts from polydimethylsiloxane antifoam additives. A direct-imaging laser particle counter classified antifoam particles as water droplets and was less susceptible to phantom particle interferences from silicone antifoam additives.

Pickled Egg Production: Inactivation Rate of Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus during Acidification Step